71. In Asia, B is represented by two main branches: B4 and B5 correspond to B1 and B2 as defined in Kolman, C.J. et al. (1996) ‘Mitochondrial DNA analysis of Mongolian populations and implications for the origin of New World founders’ Genetics 142: 1321–34. For their exact correspondence, see note 38, Chapter 5. Piman Indian Group B4: Haplotype 4 in Ingman, M. et al. (2000) ‘Mitochondrial genome variation and the origin of modern humans’ Nature 408: 708–13. Japanese Group B4: Haplotype analysed in Japan and reported in Maca-Meyer, N. et al. (2001) ‘Major genomic mitochondrial lineages delineate early human expansions’ BMC Genetics 2: 13. Additional matched sites (apart from those defining B4 itself) between the two haplotypes: HVS 16189; non-HVS 499, 827, 13590, 15535. The matches are strong: The Ingman Piman haplotype 4 has a close match in another Piman Indian, Haplotype 21, in Torroni et al. (1993a) op. cit.
72. particular individual mtDNA types: so-called ‘private’ or ‘tribal polymorphisms’. This has been interpreted to mean . . . quickly split: Torroni et al. (1993a) op. cit.
73. three unique types not found anywhere else: the Ojibwa also have A1, which is rare in North America anyway and has been found only in Ojibwa, defined by 16126 in Torroni et al. (1993a) op. cit. (Great Lakes and Canada). Other similar A1s have been found in DNA tests on ancient bones from a pre-Columbian cemetery (Norris Farms) in Minnesota, near the Great Lakes (Stone and Stoneking op. cit.). the highest rates of the rare X type: Brown et al., op. cit. having only the dominant Y founder: Scozzari, R. et al. (1997) ‘mtDNA and Y chromosome: Specific polymorphisms in modern Ojibwa: Implications about the origin of their gene pool’ American Journal of Human Genetics 60: 241–4. Ojibwa share . . . even some northern cultural features with the Na-Dene: Algonquin tribes share the earth-diver myths of recovery from the Flood with Na-Dene speakers and with peoples living either side of the Bering Strait: Oppenheimer, S.J. (1998) Eden in the East: The Drowned Continent of Southeast Asia (Weidenfeld & Nicolson, London) pp. 236–37.
74. By a further coincidence, one of the other participants, an American of Greek ancestry, also belonged to the X clan, thus demonstrating in this very small sample the power of mtDNA to trace ancient relationships.
75. The picture of A in the rest of North America: Stone and Stoneking op. cit.; Kolman et al., op. cit. the Fremont cultures of Great Salt Lake: Parr, R.L. et al. (1996) ‘Ancient DNA analysis of Fremont Amerindians of the Great Salt Lake wetlands’ American Journal of Physical Anthropology 99: 507–18. the extinct Fuegan tribes: Fox, C.L. (1996) ‘Mitochondrial DNA haplogroups in four tribes from Tierra del Fuego–Patagonia: Inferences about the peopling of the Americas’ Human Biology 68: 855–71. The Fuegans contrast strongly with the Central American Chibcha tribes, who all have A and B but lack C and D (Stone and Stoneking op. cit.).
76. B remained younger in Central America: Torroni et al. (1993a) op. cit.; Forster et al., op. cit. She is old in South America: Table 2 in Stone and Stoneking op. cit.; Forster et al. op. cit.
77. Russian geneticist Yelena Stariovskaya: Stariovskaya et al., op. cit. at least one close B4 match: see note 71.
78. First raised thirty years ago: Fladmark, K.R. (1979) ‘Routes: Alternate migration corridors for early man in North America’ American Antiquity 44(1): 55–69; see also Fladmark, K.R. (1990) ‘Possible early human occupation of the Queen Charlotte Islands, British Columbia’ Canadian Journal of Archaeology 14: 183–97. Two sites on the southern Peruvian coast: Sandweiss, D.H. et al. (1998) ‘Quebrada Tacahuay: Early South American maritime adaptations’ Science 281: 1830–32; Keefer, D.K. et al. (1998) ‘Early maritime economy and El Niño events at Quebrada Tacahuay, Peru’ Science 281: 1833–5.
79. Leonard, J. et al. (2000) ‘Population genetics of Ice Age brown bears’ Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 97: 1651–64.
80. remains and artefacts on Prince of Wales Island: Dixon, E.J. (1999) Bones, Boats, and Bison: Archaeology and the First Colonization of Western North America (University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque) evidence of beachcombing dating to 11,600 years ago: Erlandson, J.M. (1996) ‘An archaeological and palaeontological chronology for Daisy Cave (CA-SMI-261), San Miguel Island, California’, Radiocarbon 38(2): 355–73. The date of first human presence of 10,500 years ago given in this publication has now been pushed back to perhaps 11,600 years ago. Radiocarbon tests from a woman’s bones: This redating was first reported by the Santa Barbara Museum of Natural History in the San Francisco Chronicle, Monday 12 April 1999.
81. Fedje, D.W. and Josenhans, H. (2000) ‘Drowned forests and archaeology on the continental shelf of British Columbia, Canada’ Geology 28: 99–102.
INDEX
A mtDNA group 231, 255, 264, 303, 305, 306–7, 308, 309, 310–13, 331, 332, 336–7, 341, 342
Abdur 77, 80, 124–7
Abel (D/E, YAP) paternal clan 84, 158, 188–90, 191, 236–7, 269
‘aboriginal groups’ 201–2
Aboriginal Malays 158, 261–2, 264–6, 275
academic disputes 280–1, 286, 288
Acheulian tools 15, 73
Acosta, José de 279
Adam see ‘Out-of-Africa Adam’; Y chromosome
Adam gene see Y chromosome Adovasio, James 291
Afontova Gora II 206
Africa, changes to climate of 51–4
African exodus
northern route 54–67
possible routes 50–1
see also single exodus; southern route
African Late Stone Age 118
African Middle Stone Age 117–20
Africans see Anatomically Modern Humans; modern Africans
Ahmarian tools 146–7
Aiello, Leslie 9, 25
Ainu, the 205, 206, 209, 267, 269
Altai, the 152, 223, 225, 240
Americas
beachcomber remnants 324, 338–9
Cactus Hill site 286, 292
Clovis-first theory 281–7
date of first occupation 283–4
different cultures preserved in 335–8
disagreement over first occupation 280–1, 287–94
entry point 341
genetic diversity in 307–13
genetic evidence of first occupation 302–22, 327–31, 331–4
Hebior site 293
Kennewick Man 315–17, 321–2
language diversity in 294, 296–300
at Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) 247, 300
Meadowcroft Rockshelter 286, 291–2
Monte Verde site 286, 287–90
number of migrations into 301, 305, 306–7, 319–31, 341–2
Palaeo-Indians 325
re-expansion of North America 308–13
Schaefer site 293
single entry theory 320–1
Solutrean hypothesis 317–19
South America first colonization dates 322–4
Spirit Cave Man 322
stone tools 282–3, 292–3
Topper/Big Pine site 286, 292–3
Wizards Beach Man 322
Amerind speakers 300–1, 305, 306–7, 310–13, 336
Anatomically Modern Humans
ancestors of 107
characteristics of 47, 202
stone technology of 98–103
Andaman Islands 157
Arabian Desert 60, 68
Armenians 138
Arnhem Land shelters 160
art
African Middle Stone Age painting 120–1
Australian xvii, 29, 56, 108, 112–13, 160
Bhimbetka caves 121
European cave paintings 29, 55, 92, 108, 121
Mal’ta 226, 245
Saharan cliff paintings 52
Upper Palaeolithic 29, 92
Asia
European founders from 150–3
at Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) 247, 350
mammalian movement into 67–8
see also Central Asia; East Asia;
Island Southeast Asia;
Mongoloid populations; South
Asia; Southeast Asia
Aurignacian culture 131–3, 138, 144, 148
Australia
art in xvii, 29, 56, 108, 112–13, 160
colonization of (northern route theory) 59–61
colonization of (southern route theory) 57–8, 77–8
date of colonization of 82, 109, 159–71
single exodus descendants in 171
window of opportunity theory 161–6
Y chromosome main types in 191
Australians
physical appearance 174
skin colour 199
skull size reduction 204
teeth shape 209
australopithecines 5–7, 8, 10, 13–14
Azerbaijanis 138
B mtDNA group 231, 263, 264, 305, 308, 310–13, 333–4, 337–8, 340–2
Bailliet, Graciela 314
Baldwin, Mark 19, 30
Bandelt, Hans-Jurgen 61, 309, 314
Baradostian industry 147
Basque region 138, 251
beachcombing
Australian sites 163–4
begins in African Middle Stone Age 124–7
evidence for southern exodus 76–7, 80
remnants in Americas 324, 338–9
tools at Red Sea site 99
trail around Indian Ocean 156–9
bear mtDNA 339
Bednarik, Robert 121
Bellwood, Peter 167, 168, 261, 276
Berber motif 63
Berbers 63, 139
Berhe, Seife 125–6
Bering Strait 309
Beringia 309–13, 321, 334, 338, 341–2
Bhimbetka caves 121
biology
creationist view of language 29–32
European cultural revolution and xvi–xvii, 107–28
relationship with culture 18–21, 106–14
bipedalism 4–5, 13–14
blades 91, 100–3, 115, 117, 118, 272, 273
bone tools 118–19, 148, 274
Bowdler, Sandra 167
brain
asymmetry 30–1
and body size 22
development 23
language and size increase of 25–8, 31–3
maturation 22
size increase 7–13, 16–19, 361
sociability and size increase of 24–5
volumes 6, 7, 8, 9, 11, 15, 16–18, 21
Broca’s area 28, 30
Bronowski, Jacob 1
Brookes, Alison 117–27, 346
brown bear mtDNA 339
Brown, Michael 318
Brown, Peter 269
built hearths 104–6
Bulbeck, David 267, 268, 274
Burials 105–6
C mtDNA group 231, 234–5, 255, 264, 305, 308, 310–13, 331, 332, 337, 341
Cactus Hill site 286, 292
Cain (C, RPS4Y) paternal clan 84, 171, 184, 187, 190–1, 236, 269, 270, 331
Cann, Rebecca 45
Carpathian Mountains 252
Caton-Thompson, Gertrude 76
Caucasus, the 145–7
Central Asia
dating colonization of 348
genetic origins in 235
at Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) 253–5
routes into 218–24, 236–7
transition between East and West 191–2
Central Narmada Basin 73
Cerebellum 22–3
cerebral cortex 22–3
Chamberlin, Thomas 281
Chatters, James 315–16
Chauvet Cave paintings 29, 55, 92, 108, 121
Chenchu people 157, 182, 183–4, 185, 187
Chile, Monte Verde site 286, 287–90
chimpanzees
close relationship with humans 33
hunting by 12–13
language abilities of 27–8
problem-solving skills of 27
tool use by 8, 20–1, 26–7
China
genetic origins in 227
Mongoloid replacement in 268–70
technical influences at LGM 272, 274
Chinese Palaeolithic cultures 272–3
Chomsky, Noam 29, 31
chopper-chopping tools 272, 274
classical population genetics 42, 49–50
climate
dating using 354–5
influence of 3–4, 18, 51–4
see also global cooling; global warming; ice age cycles; Last Glacial Maximum
Clovis-first theory 281–7
Coevolution 19–21
colour of skin 198–200
Condillac, Étienne Bonnot de 28, 31
Cooper, Alan 339
cooperative hunting 12
Corballis, Michael 28, 31
core technologies 101, 103, 115
cortical connections 23
Crick, Francis 35–6
Crow, Tim 30
culture
European biological revolution theory xvi–xvii, 107–28
Europe’s two waves of 130–1
learning of 20–1
regional differences in progression rate 110
relationship with biology 18–21, 106–14
see also art
D mtDNA group 231, 255, 264, 268, 305, 306–7, 308, 310–13, 332–3, 337, 341
Darwin, Charles 34, 36
dating, precision of 354–6
Deloria, Vine 282
Diamond, Jared 93
Diet 9–12, 76–7, 124–7, 203–4
Dillehay, Tom 287
Disease 358–61
Diuktai technology 276
diversity see genetic diversity; language
Dixon, Robert 297
Dmanisi humans 69–72
DNA
analysis of 174
ancient 317
discovery of 35–6
see also mtDNA; Y chromosome
dolichocephaly 205
Dravidian peoples 181
dry exodus theory 78–9
Dunbar, Robin 24–5
E mtDNA group 231, 263, 264
Early Upper Palaeolithic 148, 149
East Asia
dating colonization of 348
low level tools used in 271–2
migration to Southeast Asia 263–6
north-south division in 226–8
physical appearance in 205
Eemian interglacial 53, 72
Egyptian child (Taramsa Hill) 56
Elton, Sarah 10, 11
Englefield, Ronald 28, 31
environment see climate Erlandson, Jon 339
Ethiopia 67
Europa (U) maternal clan 134–9, 179, 182
Europe
Aurignacian culture 131–3, 138, 144, 148
Gravettian culture 144–9
at Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) 244–50, 349–50
two waves of culture into 130–1
European biological revolution theory xvi–xvii, 107–28
European Middle Palaeolithic 117
European Neanderthals 16
European Upper Palaeolithic 55, 100, 107–28
Europeans
debate over out-of-Africa origins 89–93
northern route theory and 54–61
South Asian origins of 84–7, 139–44, 144, 152–4
teeth shape 206
Eve see mtDNA; Mitochondrial Eve; ‘Out-of-Africa Eve’
Eve genes see mtDNA
evolution, continuing 362–3
F mtDNA group 158, 231, 263, 264
face
flattening 7, 205
shape 201, 203, 205
face-recognition 196
Fedje, Daryl 340
Fertile Crescent 60, 85, 133, 138, 140–1, 143, 144
Fiedel, Stuart 288–90, 292
Fladmark, Knut 338, 341
flaked stone industry 272, 273, 274
Foley, Robert 57–8, 61, 72, 103, 115
food see diet
Forster, Peter 263, 309, 310–13, 337
founder effects 17
3, 214
Fullager, Robert 160
G mtDNA group 231, 264
Gadaba people 157
Gamble, Clive 24, 91, 108, 148
Gate of Grief 67–8, 77, 78–9
gene-flow levelling theory 112–13
genetic assimilation 19–21
genetic diversity
effect on physical appearance 172, 174–5
genetic drift and 172–3
genetic intervention and 361
Mongoloid populations 210
nuclear genetic markers and 173–4
present-day lack of 357–8
retained in South Asia 175–7, 191–2
transition across Americas 307–13
genetic drift 64–6, 172–3, 214–18, 330–1
genetic intervention 360–2
genetic palaeontology 347
genetics
quality of evidence 352–4
revolution in 33–5
Geographical Society Cave 273
global cooling 4
global warming 52, 356
Goodall, Jane 27
Goodyear, Al 292–3
Gould, Stephen Jay 217
gracile features 161, 175, 203, 205, 267
Gravettian culture 144–9
Gravettian technocomplex 148
Great Lakes of North America 247
Greater Andamanese 158
green North African refuges 55–6
Greenberg hypothesis 300–1, 305, 306–7
Greenberg, Joseph 297, 300–1
Grindstones 120
Guanjun, Shen 170
Gulf of Aden 80
Gunung Runtuh cave 167
Guthrie, Dale 214–17, 228, 244, 257
Hadramaut peoples 157, 175
haematite ‘pencils’ 121
Hammer, Mike 188
Han ethnic group 227
Hanish al Kubra 79
Harrison, Tom 166
Haua Fteah 139
Haynes, C. Vance 283, 287, 288, 291, 292, 293
Hearths 104–6
Hebior site 293
heredity see genetics
Heyerdahl, Thor xvii
Higgins, Jesse 282
Himalayas 219
Ho paternal line (group O) 239, 265
Holmes, William Henry 281
Homo genus 7, 10–11, 25, 30, 72
Homo erectus xvi, 10, 14–15, 16, 23, 30, 68, 72, 98, 271
Homo ergaster 9, 10, 14, 69
Homo georgicus 69
Homo habilis 8, 10, 11, 15, 30, 69
Homo heidelbergensis 30, 72, 98
Out of Eden: The Peopling of the World Page 45