Homo helmei xvi, 15–16, 72, 74–5, 98, 103, 115
Homo neanderthalis see Neanderthals
Homo rhodesiense 11, 15, 345
Homo rudolphensis 10
Homo sapiens 16, 47, 346
Horai, Santoshi 302
Hrdlicka, Ales 282
‘human revolution’ 107
see also culture
hunting 12–13
HV maternal clan 144–6, 148–50, 179, 251
ice age cycles 7, 9, 14, 15, 16, 25, 68–9, 356
see also Last Glacial Maximum
immune system adaptation 359–60
India
Chenchu people 157, 182, 183–4, 185
maternal clans of 180–4
Middle Palaeolithic tools in 73
physical appearance in 201
Y chromosome genetic trail 184–7
Indian Ocean 60, 69, 156–9, 206
Indian ‘Soan’ Middle Palaeolithic 100
Inos paternal clan 146
‘inter-regional mixing compromise’ 47–9
interglacial optimum 51–3
interglacials 51–3, 60, 72
interstadials 85, 140
Inuit-Aleut speakers 300–1, 305, 309, 310–13, 330, 336, 342
Ipswichian interglacial 53
Iran 138, 224
Iraq 138, 177, 224
Irula people 157
Island Southeast Asia 168–71, 261, 266–8, 275
Jahangir (J) paternal clan 141–4
Japan, Mongoloid immigration to 269
Jarawa people 157–8
Jefferson, Thomas 294
Jewellery 122
Jinmium rock art site 160
Johanson, Donald 5
Johnson, Michael 292
Johnson, Mo 94–5
Jones, Rhys 160
Josenhans, Heiner 340
Kadar people 157
Kara-Bom caves 223, 224–5
Karafet, Tatiana 328–9
Karolta rock engravings 108
Kennewick Man 315–17, 321–2
Kenyanthropus platyops 7
Kingdon, Jonathan 57, 59, 63
Kivisild, Toomas 83, 145, 150, 152–4, 183, 232, 234, 235
Klasies River 77
Klein, Richard 57, 108–10
Köhler, Wolfgang 27
Korava people 157
Kostenki 147
Kota Tampan culture 82, 166–9, 355
Koya people 183–4, 185
Krishna (K) paternal clan 151, 185, 191, 239–40
Kung hunter-gatherers 24
Kurdistan 138, 143, 144
Kurds 138
Lahr, Marta 57–8, 61, 72, 115, 324–5
Lamarck, Jean-Baptiste 3
landmass growth 258–60
language
animal ability 26–8
creationist view of 29–32
diversity of 294–301
drive for brain growth 25, 30–2
see also Amerind speakers; Inuit-Aleut speakers; Na-Dene speakers
language borrowing 295
language shift 295
Lascaux cave paintings 55, 92
Last Glacial Maximum (LGM)
Africa at 248
Americas at 247, 300
Asia at 247, 350
Central Asia at 253–5
Europe at 244–50, 349–50
genetic continuity during 250–5
Northern Asia at 253–5
Southeast Asia at 274–6
Lawrence, Peter 94, 96
Leakey, Richard 1
Learning 19–20
Lenggong Valley 167, 275
Leonard, Jennifer 339
Levant, the 16, 52–4, 61, 147
Levantines, Asian origins of 84–5
LGM see Last Glacial Maximum
Liang Bua cave 165, 193
Longevity 362
Lower Palaeolithic tools 73, 115
‘Lucy’ family (Australopithecus afarensis) 5–6
M7 maternal line 264
M17 (Y) paternal clan 151–3, 185–7, 252–3
M173 paternal clan 152
Macaulay, Vincent 61
McAvoy, Joseph 292
McAvoy, Lynn 292
McBrearty, Sally 117–27, 346
Macroblades 273
Majid, Zuraina 82, 167, 275
Makarovo site 223
Makrani people 157, 176
Mal’ta 226, 244
mammoth culture 148, 244
Mammoth Steppe 214–15, 228, 232, 234, 244
Manju (M) maternal clan 83–5, 158, 169–70, 171, 180–3, 229, 234, 255
mass-migration trees 49
Meadowcroft Rockshelter 286, 291–2
meat, eating 9–12
Mendel, Gregor 34–5, 36
Mesopotamia 138
Microblades 272, 273
Microliths 87, 118, 126–7
Middle Palaeolithic technology 15, 72, 98–100, 101, 103, 115, 225, 270–1
Middle Palaeolithic tools 73, 74
Middle Son Basin 73
Middle Stone Age tools 98, 99
mitochondrial DNA see mtDNA
Mitochondrial Eve 46, 172, 365
mobility of genes 42, 265
Mode 3 technology 115, 117
modern Africans 110–12, 175
Moluccas 190, 267
Mongoloid populations
drift vs. selection 214–18
expansion of 260–8
genetic diversity of 210
genetic trail of 229–42
at LGM 256–8
North-South differences 213, 227–8
physical appearance 201
physical changes in 205–7
replacement in China and Japan 268–9
skeletal features of 213–18
skull shape 211
teeth shape 209–13
Monte Verde site 286, 287–90
Mousterian tools 98, 105, 146
Movius, Hallam 271
mtDNA (mitochondrial DNA)
Americas founders 302–22, 331–4
brown bear 339
building genetic tree using xiv–xv, 37–43
continuity through LGM 250–2, 253–5
dating using 39–43
European founder lines 133–40, 144–6
evidence against gene flow 113
in India 180–4
Mitochondrial Eve 46
Mongoloid populations 229–35
mutations 38–9
nomenclature for 43
northern exodus evidence 61–3
in Pakistan 180
Semang people 169–70
single exodus evidence 83–4
multiple migrations 69–73
multiregionalist model xvi, 47–9, 159, 347
see also biology
Mumba Rock Shelter 118
Mutations 38–9, 111–12
Na-Dene speakers 300–1, 303, 305, 306, 309, 310–13, 330, 335, 342
Naeve, Richard 322–3
Narmada valley 73
Nasreen (N) maternal clan 83–5, 129, 134, 149, 169–70, 171, 177, 180–2, 184, 229, 255, 265
Nazi anthropologists 2
Neanderthals
beachcombing 77
burial 105–6, 147
co-existence with modern humans 104
European 16
hybrid with modern humans theory 47–9, 347–8
multiregionalist view of xvi
origins of 16, 72
technology used by 97–8, 103–7
unfavourable perception of 90–3
vocal anatomy of 30, 92
Neolithic culture xvii, 188
Neoteny 217
Nettle, Daniel 297
Neves, Walter 322, 323–4, 325
New Guinea 164–5, 174–5, 190, 204, 264, 266–7
Newsweek article (1988) 45, 172
Niah Cave 100
Nichols, Johanna 297–9
Nicobar Islands 158
Nomenclature 42
–3, 196–8
non-recombining DNA 36–7
Northern Asia
Cain marker found in 270
colonization of 243–7
at Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) 253–5
northern exodus theory 54–67
nose size 215–16
NRY see Y chromosome
nucleotide bases 36
Nusa Tenggara 190
Ojibwa people 336
Onge people 157–8
Orang Asli peoples 264
ornaments 122
Otte, Marcel 87, 133, 224
‘Out-of-Africa Adam’ 84, 141–2, 171
‘Out-of-Africa Eve’ 46, 84
paedomorphy 217–18
painting see art
Pakistan 157, 175–6, 179, 180, 184–6
Palaeo-Indians 325
Palaeoanthropology 2
Palaeolithic hunter-gatherers xvii
Paniyan people 157
parallel gene trees 46
Paranthropus genus 7, 8, 10–12, 14, 25, 30, 32
pebble tools 166–9, 275, 287
pencils 121
Perak Man 167, 169
perishable tools 271–2
phylogeography 42
physical appearance
Anatomically Modern Humans 202
Australians 174
differences in 195–6
East Asians 205
and genetic diversity 172, 174–5
Indians 201
Mongoloid populations 201
Southeast Asia to East Asia transition 180–1, 201
see also face; gracile features; robust features; skulls
pigment 120
Pinker, Stephen 29
plankton levels 79–80
Pleistocene ice epoch 14, 25, 51–5, 68
political correctness 2–3, 196–8
Polo, Marco 60, 219, 220
Polo (P) paternal clan 153, 240, 327–30
Polynesians xvii, 263, 296
population genetics 42, 49–50
Powell, Joseph 325
prepared cores 101, 103, 115
Proto-Australoid ethnic groups 157
Quetzalcoatl (Q) paternal clan 330
Quintana-Murci, Lluís 143, 152
‘race’ 196–7
‘racial migration’ concept 49
racism 196
Red Sea 67, 69, 77, 79–80, 99, 124
ribcage shape 9
Richards, Martin 61, 134, 144, 150, 169, 177, 263, 264, 319
rickets 198–9
Roberts, Richard 160, 164
robust features 175, 202–3, 204–5, 323, 324
Roe, Derek 100–1
Rohani maternal clan 138–9, 170, 177–9, 182–4
Rohling, Eelco 79–80
Romania 252
Rosser, Zoë 146
Ruslan paternal clan 152–3, 251, 329–30
Russia 147, 149, 273
Saharan game 52
Schaefer site 293
sea crossings 163
sea-level changes 79–80, 161–4, 258, 274
Semang people 158, 169, 264–6
Semino, Ornella 146, 150, 152
Senoi people 181
Seth (F, M89) paternal clan 84, 141–2, 152, 171, 184–5, 190–1, 236–40
Shanidar Cave 147
Shields, Gerald 308
Shutler, Richard 168
Silk Road 219–21
single exodus
mtDNA evidence for 83–4
Y chromosome (NRY) evidence for 66, 84
Sinodonty 209, 211, 212
size, change in human 203–4
skeletons
Lake Mungo 161
Liujiang 170–1
Mongoloid skeleton
features 213–18
size of 203
skin colour 198–200
skulls
American 315–16
Dali 73
Liujiang 269
Luzia 322–3
Maba 73
‘Madeleine’ (Java) 73
Minatogawa 205, 269
Narmada 100
Niah cave 267
Selknam 324
shape differences 2, 203, 323, 347
size reduction 204–7
Skhul 5 202
Tabon Cave 267
Tehuelches 324
Upper Cave 101 269
Wajak 267–8
sociability 24
Solecki, Ralph 147
Solheim, Wilhelm 275
Solutrean culture 250
Solutrean hypothesis 317–19
Song Keplek cave 266
South America, dates of first colonization 322–4
South Asia
aboriginal groups 157
central role of 348
genetic diversity retained in 175–7, 191–2
origin of European founders 84–7, 139–44, 144, 152–4
Southeast Asia
Australo-Melanesian view of 267–8
colonization of (northern route theory) 59–61
gap in occupation 274–5
genetically distinct form Northeast Asia 227
at LGM 274–6
low level tools used in 271–2
migration from East Asia 263–6
Mongoloid expa
nsion into 262–8
stone technology in 100
technical influences at LGM 272
teeth shape in 206–10
Y chromosome evidence of route into 189–93
see also Island Southeast Asia; Mongoloid populations
southern route
archaeological evidence for 87
beachcomber evidence for 76–7, 80
climatic evidence for 67–74, 78–82
colonization of Australia 57–8, 77–8
dating of 73–6, 78–83
mtDNA evidence for 83–4
Y chromosome (NRY) evidence for 66, 84, 188–93
speech see language
Spirit Cave Man 322
Spitsynians 147
Sri Lanka 87, 157
Stanford, Denis 317
Stariovskaya, Yelena 338, 340
Stone, Anne 320
stone tools
Acheulian tools 15, 73
American finds 282–3, 292–3
Anatomically Modern Humans 98–103
blades 91, 100–3, 115, 117, 118, 272, 273
in Central Asia 224–6
chopper-chopping 272, 274
and cultural revolution theory 115–20
as evidence for northern exodus 59
flaked stone industry 272, 273, 274
and increase in brain size 8
Kota Tampan culture 166–9
low level used in Asia 271–2
Lower Palaeolithic 73
macroblades 273
made by Homo erectus 14
microblades 272, 273
microliths 87, 118, 126–7
Middle Palaeolithic 72
Neanderthal vs. modern 91
pebble tools 166–9, 275, 287
in Sri Lanka 87
stone points 118
Tingkayu lanceolate knives 275–6
Upper Palaeolithic 73, 87, 146
Stoneking, Alan 320
Stringer, Chris 56, 57, 61
Sundadonty 207–9, 210–11, 212, 316
Sunghir grave 122
symbolic thought see art; language syntax 31
Syrian Desert 60
Tamil population 181
Taramsa Hill 56
Tasmanians 75, 267
TAT paternal clan 151, 239, 330
teeth shape change 206–13
terminology 42–3, 196–8
thalassaemias 359–60, 361
Tierra del Fuegans 204–5
Tigris Valley 60
Toba explosion 73, 80–2, 166–9, 183, 188, 192–3, 355, 356
tools see bone tools; perishable tools; stone tools
Topper, David 292
Topper/Big Pine site 28
6, 292–3
Torroni, Antonio 229, 264, 302–5, 309, 313, 337
Trading 127
Trans-Caucasus 138, 145, 148
Turkey 138
Underhill, Peter 58, 150, 152, 188
Upper Cave 269, 273
Upper Palaeolithic art 29, 92
Upper Palaeolithic technology 87, 90, 92, 100–3, 147, 223–5, 270–1, 272–3
Upper Palaeolithic tools 73, 87, 146
Urumchi mummies 149
Ust-Karakol caves 223
vegetarianism 9–11
Villems, Richard 83, 145
Wainscoat, James 50
walking (bipedalism) 4–5, 13–14
Ward, Ryk 302, 314
Watson, Jim 35–6
Wells, H.G. 90
Wheeler, Peter 9
Wizards Beach Man 322
X mtDNA group 231, 235, 314–15, 318–20, 332, 336, 341
Y chromosome (NRY)
Americas multiple migrations 327–31
building genetic tree using xiv–xv, 41–3
earliest exodus route evidence 188–93
European founder lines 141–4, 146
and Europe’s Asian origin 150–3
and gene flow 113
Mongoloid populations 235–42
nomenclature for 43
single exodus evidence 66, 84
Y (M17) paternal clan 151–3, 185–7, 252–3
Yadhava people 187
Yali 93–7
Yanadi people 157
Yangtzi River (China) 272, 274, 327
Yellow River (China) 272–3, 327
Yemen, the 166
Z mtDNA group 229, 231, 234–5, 255
Zagros Mountains 60, 68, 87, 133, 138, 140, 143, 224
Zergal, Tatiana 151
(1) Reconstruction of Australopithecus afarensis, from Lucy’s family of walking apes, 3-4 million years ago. They had one of the first clearly upright and bipedal bodies, but a skull and brain still the size of a chimpanzee’s.
(2) Reconstruction of Homo erectus head.With a wary face and growing brain, they left Africa at the earliest opportunity, successfully dominating the planet for nearly two million years.
(3) Skulls of (from top, left to right) Australopithecus, Homo rudolfensis, Homo erectus, Homo rhodesiensis, Neanderthal and modern man.
(4) Reconstruction of Neanderthal head.The heavy features, brow-ridges and large nose were partly adaptations to the northern climate.
(5) Newsweek’s iconic cover of 11 January 1988 carried the full story of ‘Mitochondrial Eve’ to the world.
(6) Eight-thousand-year-old Saharan rock images of elephants, hippos and giraffes, like this at Fezzan in Libya, record a time when the region was lush grassland.
(7) The Red Sea, with the Gate of Grief at the bottom, where the crossing out of Africa took place 80,000 years ago. (Colours computer-generated.)
Out of Eden: The Peopling of the World Page 46