Small-Scale Livestock Farming

by Carol Ekarius

  For those who don’t relate to animals, we animal lovers are crazy: Animals are just dirty, noisy, smelly things that tie you down and take too much responsibility. Little do they know!

  Animal companionship is an elixir, a fountain of youth. Having animals around reduces stress, lowers blood pressure, and floods the body with endorphins: measurable, positive, physiological responses. We’re the lucky ones!

  Domestication

  The human need for animals isn’t new; it goes back many thousands of years. Our needs for food, clothing, traction, and companionship led early peoples to domesticate animals.

  Domestication wasn’t simply human dominance over another species; it was an evolutionary codependence in which both human and animal found benefits from living together. As Stephen Budiansky puts it in The Nature of Horses, “If it were simply a matter of human will, it would be hard to explain why we should have domestic dogs, sheep, goats, cows, pigs, horses, asses, camels, rabbits, and cats — but not deer, squirrels, foxes, antelope, or even hippos and zebras.” In other words, the animals that became today’s domesticated species were the wild animals that found the greatest biological advantages in associating with humans, including a secure source of feed, protection from other predators, and leadership.

  Archaeological evidence indicates that we were still hunter-gatherers at the time that dogs became the first domesticated species, about 15,000 years ago. Anthropologists speculate that dogs were first domesticated to aid with hunting, but they may also have been the first animals domesticated because they are care-soliciting creatures, bringing out our nurturing side. One thing is certain: They share similar traits with all the animals that have been domesticated since. They are generalists that can live in a wide variety of ecosystems; they tend to organize in groups, and within the group they tend to follow a leader, or an alpha animal; one male will breed with multiple females; and they’re curious.

  As humans settled into agriculturally based societies and gave up the nomadic life of hunter-gatherers, a sudden boom took place in the domestication of both plants and animals. Initially, most progress was made with plants, but livestock domestication followed quickly as some wild herbivores discovered that living in proximity to these human settlements wasn’t all bad. Between 10,000 and 12,000 years ago, humans domesticated goats, sheep, cows, and pigs. Horses came kind of late in the process, a mere 8,000 years ago.

  Figure 5.1. Przewalski’s horse is the wild horse from which modern horses are believed to have been bred. These horses are considered extinct in the wild, though several zoos around the world are working to save the species from complete extinction through captive breeding programs.

  With the exception of pigs, the wild ancestors of most of our current livestock species have either disappeared completely or are found in very small numbers. Modern cattle descended from the auroch, a large wild animal that was hunted to extinction in the seventeenth century. Przewalski’s horse, considered by many to be the wild forerunner of our modern horse, survives only in small, captive populations (Figure 5.1). Wild sheep and goats are endangered or threatened throughout the world.

  Breeds and Genetic Diversity

  In more than 15,000 years, humans have succeeded in domesticating less than fifty species of animals. From these species, though, thousands of distinct breeds have been developed worldwide. Early in the process, breed development was fairly informal, a luck-of-the-draw kind of affair. But over the millennia, breeding became a serious endeavor. Given time, genetics can be manipulated to produce animals with desired traits. Some breeds were acclimated to northern weather, some to southern. Some breeds thrived in arid environments, some in humid. Some breeds were prized for the color of their coats, the length of their feathers, or the size of their horns.

  Unfortunately, this genetic heritage is shrinking as many minor breeds disappear. More than one-third of the livestock and poultry breeds in the United States are currently considered rare or endangered; 80 percent suffer from insufficient numbers of breeding animals to maintain a healthy diversity within the breed. Worldwide, things don’t look any better; 30 percent are in imminent risk of extinction, and about six breeds are lost each month. A look at the American dairy industry provides a clue to what has happened to the livestock gene pool: 83 percent of all dairy cows in the United States are Holsteins, and because of artificial insemination, more than 80 percent of Holstein cows are bred to one of only twenty sires or their sons (Figure 5.2).

  Figure 5.2. Dutch Belted cattle are an old and very rare breed of cattle. Considered a dual-purpose animal (i.e., good for both meat and milk production), they make an ideal homestead cow.

  Losing minor breeds results in a loss of genetic variation, which can have tragic consequences. When most animals come from the same stock, they’re more vulnerable to disease, parasites, and environmental changes. The predominant breeds in agriculture today are single-purpose breeds: the Holstein in dairy production, the White Rock in poultry, the Landrace in pork, and the Suffolk in sheep. These are industrial animals, bred for one trait only — production. Their performance when measured strictly in terms of production is outstanding, but they require high inputs of expensive feeds and veterinary services, and they tend to burn out quickly. The average dairy cow in this country lives less than three years before she is shipped to a packer; in a less intensive system, she can easily be milked for a decade or more.

  Minor Breeds and Small-Scale Farms

  The loss of minor breeds can have especially grave impacts on small-scale farmers. Many of the breeds that have been lost or are in danger of being lost are considered dual-purpose breeds that can produce both milk and meat, or eggs and meat, or wool and meat well. These are traits that still work on a small-scale farm. Many of these minor breeds are regionally acclimated, or do well on a primarily forage diet. They tend to be excellent mothers, making the farmer’s job easier.

  TERMINOLOGY

  Crossbred. Crossbred animals are known to have more than one breed in their lineage. Many crossbred animals perform well, due to an effect known as hybrid vigor. Constant inbreeding can result in bad traits coming through, but when you cross two breeds you tend to get a vigorous, healthy animal.

  Exotic. Exotic animals are those species that are not generally raised for commercial agricultural purposes in the United States. Elk, red deer, pot-bellied pigs, and camels are a few examples of exotic species.

  Grade. Grade animals may or may not be pure-bred. If you look at a Jersey cow from a nonregistered herd, she may very possibly be a purebred Jersey, but there are no records of her breeding so she’s called a grade Jersey.

  Minor breeds. Minor breeds are those breeds of livestock that have fallen from favor in commercial agriculture. As the breeds lose popularity in the commercial sector, their numbers decrease — sometimes to such an extent the breed becomes extinct.

  Papered.This is the same as registered. It just means the owner has registration papers on the animal.

  Purebred. Purebred animals have 100 percent of their bloodlines coming out of one breed of animal. A purebred Black Angus cow, for example, has no other breed in her lineage.

  Registered. Registered animals are all purebred or bred in accordance with an official breed association’s standards, and their lineage is recorded with a breed association. A registered Quarter Horse comes from either two registered Quarter Horse parents or, as the American Quarter Horse Association (AQHA) rules allow, the cross of a Quarter Horse with a Thoroughbred. Its lineage is documented with the AQHA, and the owners’ receive a registration certificate for the horse from the association. Most major breeds and many minor breeds have breed associations that record the registrations of animals within their breeds. Registration costs money; the amount varies from one breed association to the next. Registered animals aren’t necessarily better than nonregistered animals; there is simply a detailed record of their breeding going back many generations.

  EXOTIC SPECIES AND SALVAGE VALUE
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  Exotic species are all those different critters that are not part of the standard marketplace for livestock. Currently, exotic species being raised in the United States include elk, various types of deer, bison, llamas, alpacas, emu, ostrich, rhea (an ostrich family member that comes from South America), and pot-bellied pigs.

  Exotic animals typically go through a period in the marketplace when their prices go sky high. We’ve watched this happen time and again. At one time, llamas were selling for $50,000 dollars; you can purchase one for $500. A few years back, emu were going for $15,000 for a breeding pair; now people give them away. One person who is familiar with the livestock markets likened what happens with exotic species to a pyramid scheme, an excellent analogy.

  The first people who breed these exotics sell them for breeding stock. There aren’t many around, so if the initial breeders can stimulate some demand the price flies. A spiraling effect takes place: The more the animals sell for, the more people think they can make when they buy their breeding pair. But sooner or later, the breeding market becomes saturated. Finally, the animals must be sold based on what their ultimate use is — meat, fiber, or work. This is the point where the market crashes, mainly because the breeders haven’t developed an adequate end market.

  The end market is important when you’re looking at any alternative enterprise, but especially so if you’re considering an exotic species that sells at an astronomical premium above its salvage value.

  The salvage value is what you can get out of an animal that must be put down — say, it breaks a leg. I don’t know about other parts of the world, but I know that no one eats llama in the United States, so the only salvage value for a llama is its fiber or hide. They produce about 8 pounds (3.6 kg) of fiber every other year. That’s not much to salvage.

  Now, before everyone who raises llamas begins screaming, let me say that I like llamas and that they do have some value — as pets, as guard animals for sheep and goats, and as pack animals. If you have a job to support your farm and want to keep some llamas around for pets — go for it. Or if you’re raising a flock of sheep and are considering llamas for guard animals — that’s great. I just want to warn new and aspiring farmers of a real hazard with exotic animals — they have wiped out many bank accounts over the years.

  Let’s go back to the idea of end markets (and this time I’ll pick on the emu crowd): A mature emu weighs about 100 pounds (45.4 kg), and yields about 25 pounds (11.3 kg) of meat. Seeing as they don’t sell emu meat in Safeway, or Albertson’s, or Wynn-Dixie, you will have to take personal responsibility for marketing this 25 pounds (11.3 kg) of meat. Even if you’re a great salesperson and are able to sell all of it for $7 per pound ($15.43 per kg), you’ll receive $175. Out of that $175 must come your operating expenses, like feed, and depreciation on capital expenses, like fencing and buildings. When you look at salvage value, it is hard to justify spending many thousands of dollars on breeding stock that have such low salvage values — yet people did it for a few years.

  The breeders who are getting into elk, deer, and bison have a stronger end market: There is a demand for this type of meat, particularly in upscale restaurants; there are many by-products from these animals; and there are opportunities for on-farm hunting. But again, if you’re looking at any exotic species to create a profitable enterprise you must evaluate the salvage value of the animals, the start-up costs (fencing and other facilities, as well as the cost of breeding stock), and your ability to market the end product yourself.

  Exotic species definitely have a place in the agricultural landscape, but you must research, research, research, before you invest! And research is not simply reading through the glossy little brochures put out by the breeders’ group, because they benefit by keeping the bubble afloat. Eventually, each exotic bubble breaks, and you don’t want to be in the fallout when it does. Even if people are willing to pay $500 for an egg, ask yourself, how long it can go on. Obviously, once the breeding market is flooded no one is going to scramble up $500 eggs for breakfast! The planning exercises in part IV will help you with your evaluation.

  We became interested in minor breeds early in our farming operation. Our milking herd included not only Holsteins but also Milking Shorthorns, Jerseys, and some crossbred cattle. One of our top-producing cows was actually a cross between a Black Angus and a Jersey. Belle didn’t know that black cows weren’t supposed to be dairy cows! Our beef herd included Scotch Highlands, and our sheep flock primarily consisted of Karakuls, a fat-tailed breed of colored sheep that originated on the steppes of Russia. A walk through our henhouse would have revealed many minor breeds: Black Jersey Giants, Barred Rocks, and Rhode Island Reds, to name a few. One of our favorite pet animals on the farm was a Broad-Breasted Bronze turkey named Tom — we’re original with names! Tom was also a favorite with visitors who came to the farm, and he got his picture in the newspaper several times.

  FARMER PROFILE

  Greg and Lei Gunthorpe

  In 1991, Greg and Lei Gunthorpe purchased a 100-acre farm across the road from his folks’ farm. Like his father, grandfather, and great-grandfather before him, Greg’s main enterprise is pasture-raised pigs.

  “My dad has been raising hogs on pasture at that farm since 1951, and the neighbors still think we’re all crazy. And that’s in spite of the fact that most of them have gone out of business raising hogs in confinement during the same period. There used to be hundreds of small hog farmers in LaGrange County [Indiana], and now there’re only about three others left.”

  Greg and Lei tried confinement hogs for a little while, because there was already a confinement barn on the place they bought. “I tried it for about four years. Two of those years I did okay, but in the other two I got sick of the death loss.”

  According to Greg, when you’re raising pasture pigs most death loss comes in the first 48 hours: either babies that are rolled on by the sow, or runts that don’t have the stamina to survive outdoors. But with confinement, many of the deaths fell on pigs that were well along. “When you lose a 200-pound pig, you lose a lot of money.”

  Greg has good luck with spring and fall farrowing on pasture. He averages eight to ten finished pigs per litter, with little or no purchased feed.

  Greg’s rotation includes soybeans, corn, wheat, and pasture. The only crop he harvests is the beans; the pigs harvest the rest right out of the field.

  Over the years, the Gunthorpes began to notice that the breeding stock they were buying didn’t really fit their system. “Modern breeding programs had developed strains of pigs that only work well in confinement. These pigs have lost the ability to forage, and to gain on a high-forage diet.” Tamworth hogs, a minor breed, became a crucial link in Greg’s breeding program. “The Tamworths are hardy and rugged beasts. They haven’t lost their foraging traits.”

  It was a little tough to find a minor breed, like the Tamworths, at first. Greg had to drive four hours to find the nearest breeder, and there were several places he could have stopped in between to pick up commercial boars, but the drive was worth the effort.

  Another benefit of keeping a minor breed going, Greg and Lei have found, is that it has helped their marketing. Although most of their hogs are still marketed conventionally, they do have one restaurant customer in Chicago who purchases one whole hog every week of the year; they also sell some hogs to a natural foods store in San Francisco. “These customers like the idea that they are helping to keep a minor breed going when they purchase from us. It has helped us define a marketing niche.”

  But Greg emphasizes that matching animals to a low-input system is his primary reason for opting for a minor breed. “I can’t overstate the importance of how the animal’s genetics need to match the land and the system.”

  Minor breeds may not work as well on a highly industrialized farm, but they can work very well on small-scale farms where forage is the primary feed, animals are expected to harvest most of that feed themselves, and the farmer doesn’t want to build expensive and spec
ialized housing. Our Karakuls didn’t produce the large litters of lambs that most commercial sheep producers favor, but they were perfect for us. First-time ewes always had just one lamb — which works out well, because who needs a teenage mother with three or four babies to look after? Older ewes usually produced twins, and sometimes triplets. The ewes that did have triplets were capable of raising all three lambs themselves. The only bottle lamb we ever had — Junior — had to be hand-raised because his mother had severe mastitis in one half of her bag, so she could only feed one of her twins.

  Finding minor breeds can take a little effort, but for small-scale farmers this effort is worth it. They aren’t usually available at a local sale barn, so you’ll probably have to look for individual producers who own the breed you’re interested in. The marketing of minor breeds, like the marketing of exotic species, can be a real challenge. The conventional marketplace, including sale barns and packers, often discounts minor breeds. If you do seek to work with minor breeds, part III should help you think of ways to market them.

  One good source of information on minor breeds is the American Livestock Breeds Conservancy (ALBC) of Pittsboro, North Carolina. The ALBC is a nonprofit organization dedicated to helping preserve these minor breeds. It offers a number of publications, including a minor breed census and lists of breeders of breeders around the country. (See appendix E, Resources.)

  Breeding and Genetics

  In 1865, an Austrian monk, Gregor Mendel, presented a paper before the Society for the Natural Sciences in Brunn, Austria. The paper’s title was “Experiments in Plant Hybridization.” Mendel’s work received little interest at the time, but around the turn of the century other scientists independently verified Mendel’s results, and breeding began its transition from a haphazard — but successful — art form to a science. Mendel may have been the father of genetics, but the science didn’t come to be known by that name until 1905, when William Bateson, a scientist who applied Mendel’s work to chickens, coined the term.