Spain's Road to Empire

by Henry Kamen

  72. Goodman 1997, p.261.

  73. Goodman 1988, p.78.

  74. For reforms in the training of pilots in the eighteenth century, see M. E. Sellés and Antonio Lafuente, ‘La formación de los pilotos en la España del siglo XVIII’, in the composite work La ciencia moderna y el Nuevo Mundo, Madrid 1985.

  75. Goodman 1988, p.80.

  76. Konetzke, p.31.

  77. Ibid., p.36.

  78. Goodman 1997, pp.215–220.

  79. Michel Fontenay, ‘The Mediterranean 1500 to 1800’, in Victor Mallia-Milanes, ed., Venice and Hospitaller Malta 1530–1798, Malta 1992, p.29.

  80. A good outline of the units in the fleet is given by Olesa Muñido, I, 504–516.

  81. Cf. the comment by Galasso, p.30: ‘The Italian realms had in the context of the empire an importance that is difficult to exaggerate.’

  82. Ruiz Martin 1965, p.xviii.

  83. AGS: SP leg.984, documents of Nov 11, 1589.

  84. Koenigsberger, p.57.

  85. Ibid., pp.105, 139.

  86. Tommaso Astarita, The continuity of feudal power, Cambridge 1992, pp.203–204.

  87. Manuel Rivero, ‘Poder y clientelas en la fundación del Consejo de Italia’, Cheiron, 17–18, 1992.

  88. Cf. Galasso, pp.37–41.

  89. D. Frigo, ‘“Per ben negociare” in Spagna’, Cheiron, 17–18, 1992, p.291.

  90. Above, Chapter 2.

  91. Mario Rizzo, ‘Lo stato di Milano nell'età di Filippo II', in Elena Brambilla and Giovanni Muto, La Lombardia spagnola, Milan 1997, p.374.

  92. Cited by Koenigsberger, p. 81.

  93. Antonio de Herrera, Comentarios de los Hechos de los Castellanos… en Italia, Madrid 1624, p.467.

  94. Cf. Luigi de Rosa, ‘Economic crisis in the kingdom of Naples in the days of Philip II’, JEEH, vol.28, no.3, 1999.

  95. Roberto Mantelli, II pubblico impiego nell'economia del Regno di Napoli, Naples 1986, p.102.

  96. Croce, p. 130.

  97. Mario Rizzo, ‘Lo stato di Milano’, p.380.

  98. Domenico Sella and Carlo Capra, Il Ducato di Milano dal 1535 al 1796, Turin 1984, p.9.

  99. Calabria, pp.89–90.

  100. Quoted in Galasso, p. 183.

  101. Quoted in Essen 1933, I, 139.

  102. Brantôme, I, 29.

  103. At the siege of Berg-op-Zoom by the tercios in 1622, the number of camp followers was estimated by a witness as being greater than that of the army itself.

  104. Kamen 1997, p.126.

  105. CODOIN, XXXVII, 42–70. Villavicencio was, despite his apparently liberal advice, a fervent enemy of the cause of the Netherlands.

  106. Cf. Braudel, II, 1068.

  107. In Jan. 1570, for example, the army received 414 cases of armament from Milan: AGS: E leg.152 f.76. In 1572 it ordered 250 field guns: AGS: E leg.154 f.106.

  108. Don Juan to Ruy Gómez, Nov 5, 1570, CODOIN, XXXVIII, 156.

  109. All the available sources give slightly varying figures for both vessels and soldiers. I have followed in general the figures suggested by Cayetano Rosell, Historia del combate naval de Lepanto, Madrid 1853, p.79; José M. Martinez-Hidalgo, Lepanto, Barcelona 1971, p.15; and I. A. A. Thompson and Geoffrey Parker, ‘Lepanto (1571): the costs of victory’, in Thompson 1992.

  110. The best short account of Lepanto is still that by Braudel, II, 1102–1103.

  111. John F. Guilmartin, ‘The tactics of the battle of Lepanto clarified’, in Craig L. Symonds, ed., New aspects of naval history, Annapolis 1981, p.44.

  112. Martinez-Hidalgo (cited in n.107), p.35.

  113. Eric Cochrane, Historians and Historiography in the Italian Renaissance, Chicago 1981, p. 205.

  114. Ruiz Martin 1975, p.739.

  115. March, J. M., Don Luis de Requeséns en el gobierno de Milán, Madrid 1943, P.57.

  116. García Hernán, p.231.

  117. Cited in ibid., p.228.

  118. Cf. Milhou 1983, pp.361–5.

  119. Vilar and Lourido, p.66.

  120. Notes by king in AGS: Eleg. 2842.

  121. CODOIN, LXXV, 135.

  122. Secretary Prats to king, Nov 1572, CODOIN, LXXV, 129.

  123. The appointment was in fact made early in 1572, but Requesens did not go to the Netherlands until the end of 1573.

  124. AGS: E leg.156 ff.105, 141.

  125. ‘Lo que Su Magd manda que se platique’, AGS: E leg.568 f.51.

  126. Quoted by Parker in Thomas and Verdonk, p.281.

  127. Parker 1979, p.33.

  128. Cited in A. Morel-Fatio, L'Espagne au XVIe et au XVIIe siécle, Heilbronn 1878, p.112.

  129. The standard life is William S. Maltby, Alba; a biography of Fernando Álvarez de Toledo, Third Duke of Alba, 1507–1582, Berkeley 1983.

  130. Brantôme, I, 31.

  131. Duque de Alba, Epistolario del III duque de Alba, Don Fernando Alvarez de Toledo, 3 vols, Madrid 1952, I, 110, 118.

  132. Alba, Epistolario, I, 349, 370.

  133. Ibid., 390, 447. Alba's letter states that 3,000 tercios were lost at sea; this seems improbable. Since he also mentions they formed three companies, I have corrected the total to 1,000 men.

  134. On some views about banks in the Mediterranean, see Martin H. Körner, Solidarités financières suisses au seiziéme siècle, Lausanne 1980, p.332.

  135. José Manuel Pérez Prendes, La monarquía indiana y el estado de derecho, Valencia 1989, p.150.

  136. Guaman Poma, I, 334.

  137. Ibid., 340.

  138. Spanish theorists of ‘empire’ tended to write about an imagined rather than a realistic notion. A good discussion of the theme, written a generation ago, is that by Mario Góngora, Studies in the colonial history of Spanish America, Cambridge 1975.

  139. Quoted in Lewis Hanke, The Spanish struggle for Justice in the Conquest of America, Philadelphia 1949, p. 167.

  Chapter 5: The Pearl of the Orient

  1. Quoted in Schurz 1939, p.26.

  2. What follows is based on Goodman 1988, pp. 53–65.

  3. Leonard Andaya, in Tarling, p.354.

  4. Montserrat León Guerrero, ‘El hallazgo del tornaviaje de las Filipinas por el Pacífico’, XIII Coloquio, p.1032.

  5. Nicholas D. Pisano, The Spanish pacification of the Philippines 1565–1600, Kansas 1992, pp.289–303.

  6. Morga, p.14.

  7. Pisano, pp.332–333.

  8. Leslie E. Bauzon, Deficit government. Mexico and the Philippine situado, 1606–1804, Tokyo 1981, p.2.

  9. Quoted in Nicholas P. Cushner, Spain in the Philippines, Quezon City 1971, p.4.

  10. Morga, pp.238, 269.

  11. Otte 1988, p.89.

  12. Cf. Phelan 1959, chap.VIII.

  13. Only in the twentieth century have Asians greatly extended the cultivation of maize.

  14. Schurz 1939, p.29.

  15. Ibid., p.23.

  16. Otte 1988, p.89.

  17. Schurz 1939, p.26.

  18. Ibid., p.70.

  19. Anthony Reid, in Tarling, p.477.

  20. Reed, p.33.

  21. Phelan, p.11.

  22. Gungwu, p.59.

  23. Morga, p.224.

  24. Schurz 1939, p.92.

  25. Cf. Reed, p. 5 6.

  26. Morga, p.154.

  27. Gungwu, p.62.

  28. Morga, p.14.

  29. Ibid., p.249.

  30. Reed, p. 34.

  31. Quoted in ibid., p.33.

  32. Schurz 1939, chap.6.

  33. O. H. K. Spate, The Spanish lake, London 1979, pp.106–109.

  34. Cook 1973, p.16.

  35. The Cambridge History of the Pacific islanders, Cambridge 1997, pp.122–124.

  36. Schurz 1939, p.262.

  37. Otte 1988, p.116.

  38. Schurz 1939, pp.256, 259.

  39. Ibid., p.15.

  40. Cook 1973, pp.5–6.

  41. For a recent bibliographical sketch, P. Pérez Herrero, ‘El galeón de Manila. Relaciones comerciales entre el Extremo Oriente y América’, in El Ex
tremo Oriente Ibérico, Madrid 1989, p.445.

  42. Leonard Andaya, in Tarling, p.357.

  43. Crosby, p. 199.

  44. A. Kobata, ‘The production and uses of gold and silver in 16th and 17th century Japan’, EconHR, XVIII, 2, 1965, p.255.

  45. Leonard Andaya, in Tarling, p.3 51. Some Japanese scholars put the figures very much higher: see William S. Atwell, ‘International bullion flows and the Chinese economy circa 1530–1650, P&P, 95, May 1982, p. 71.

  46. Adapted from the quotation in Vera Valdés Lakowsky, De las minas al mar. Historia de la plata mexicana en Asia: 1586–1834, Mexico 1987, p.119.

  47. Meilink-Roelofsz, p.265.

  48. J. Kathirithamby-Wells, in Tarling, p.607.

  49. Meilink-Roelofsz, p.264.

  50. Scott, p.9.

  51. Quoted in Schurz 1939, p.42.

  52. Schurz 1939, p.41.

  53. Leonard Andaya, in Tarling, p.347.

  54. Gil, p.62.

  55. Hall, p.62.

  56. Boxer 1967, p.169.

  57. Hall, pp.363–364.

  58. Gil, p.110.

  59. Ibid., p.121.

  60. Quoted in Schurz 1939, p.99.

  61. W. Michael Mathes, Sebastian Vizcaíno y la expansión española en el océano Pacífico, 1580–1630, Mexico 1973, pp.99–115.

  62. Gil, pp.309–385, has the contemporary text relating Vizcaino's visit.

  63. Ohashi Yukihiro, ‘New perspectives on the Tokugawa persecution’, p.50, in J. Breen and M. Williams, Japan and Christianity, London 1996.

  64. Schurz 1939, p.195.

  65. Gil, p.191. The official was Rodrigo de Vivero, who in 1608–1609 was interim governor of the Philippines.

  66. Boxer 1959, pp.111, 135.

  67. Schurz 1939, p. 81.

  68. España y el Pacífico, Madrid 1990, p.36, a summary of the 1586 memorial.

  69. Bauzon, Deficit government, p.14.

  70. Scott, p.6.

  71. Cf. Merle Ricklefs, ‘Balance and military innovation in 17th-century Java’, in Douglas M. Peers, ed., Warfare and Empires. Contact and conflict between European and non-European military and maritime forces and cultures, Aldershot 1997, p.101.

  72. Leonard Andaya, in Tarling, p.3 87.

  73. Reid, p.229.

  74. G.V. Scammell, ‘Indigenous assistance in the establishment of Portuguese power in Asia’, in Ships, oceans and empire, Aldershot 1995, chap.XI, p.8.

  75. Furber, p.100.

  76. Botero 1605, II, iv, 140.

  77. Boxer 1969, pp.133–134.

  78. Argensola's Conquista de las Islas Malucas was published in 1609; see Green, IV, 49–50.

  79. John Villiers, ‘Manila and Maluku: trade and warfare in the eastern archipelago 1580–1640’, PS, 34, 1986, p.152.

  80. Schurz 1939, p.140.

  81. Ibid., p. 141.

  82. Quoted in Valdés Lakowsky, p.100.

  83. Boxer 1969, p.123.

  84. Gil, p.31 n.19.

  85. Goodman 1988, p.63.

  86. John M. Headley, ‘Spain's Asian presence, 1565–1590: structures and aspirations’, HAHR 75:4, 1995, p.640.

  87. Ibid., p.641.

  88. Rodao, p.14.

  89. Ibid., p.23.

  90. Ibid., p.28.

  91. Irving A. Leonard, Los libros del Conquistador, Mexico 1953, p.48.

  92. Cook 1973, p.3.

  93. Spate, The Spanish lake, p.229.

  94. Quoted in Andrews 1984, p.132.

  95. Quoted in Bradley, p.26.

  96. Andrews 1984, pp. 144–158.

  97. Cf. Pérez-Mallaína and Torres Ramirez, pp.4, 86.

  98. Cook 1973, p.11.

  99. Bolton 1908, pp.123–132.

  100. Cook 1973, p.18.

  101. Boxer 1978, p.134 n.43.

  102. Boxer 1959, p.200.

  103. Cf. Anthony Reid, ‘Islamization and Christianization in Southeast Asia: the critical phase, 1550–1650’, pp.158–160, in Anthony Reid, ed., Southeast Asia in the early modern era: Trade, power and belief, Ithaca 1993.

  104. Olwer, p. 121.

  105. Boxer 1978, p.112.

  106. Phelan 1959, p.18.

  107. Ibid., p.131.

  108. Ibid., p.88.

  109. Boxer 1978, p.61.

  110. Schurz 1939, p.52.

  111. Ibid., p.288.

  Chapter 6: The Frontier

  1. Otte 1988, p.325.

  2. For the frontier, see Silvio Zavala, ‘The frontiers of Hispanic America’, in W. D. Wyman and C. B. Kroeber, eds, The frontier in perspective, Madison 1965; and Frederick Jackson Turner, ‘The significance of the frontier in American history’, reprinted several times.

  3. A pioneering and little recognized contribution to the subject is the chapter in Schurz 1956, chap. VIII.

  4. Leonard, p.46.

  5. Ibid., p.61.

  6. Rosenblat, II, 24–26.

  7. Otte, ‘La mujer’, p.1497.

  8. Adapted from the text in James Lockhart and Enrique Otte, Letters and people of the Spanish Indies. Sixteenth century, Cambridge 1976, pp.15–17.

  9. Angela Pereda López, ‘La mujer burgalesa en la América del siglo XVI’, XIII Coloquio, p.1152.

  10. Maria Angeles Gálvez Ruiz, ‘Mujeres y “maridos ausentes” en Indias’, XIII Coloquio, p.1166.

  11. Otte 1988, pp.222, 162.

  12. Ibid., p.379.

  13. Ibid., p.303.

  14. Pereda López, p.1156.

  15. Enrique Otte, ‘La mujer de Indias en el siglo XVI’, XIII Coloquio, p.1495.

  16. Otte, ‘La mujer’, p.1497.

  17. Knaut, p.29.

  18. Cited in Weber, p.49.

  19. Wachtel, p.293. He suggests figures of between ten thousand and sixty thousand for the Indians.

  20. Bannon, p.27.

  21. Lyon, p.5.

  22. Full details of the events of 1565 are in Lyon, pp.171–188.

  23. Ibid., p.xix.

  24. Otte 1988, p.212.

  25. Powell, p. 158.

  26. Bannon, p.3 6.

  27. Knaut, p.42.

  28. See Weber, p.86.

  29. Bannon, p.39.

  30. Bolton, pp.234–238.

  31. Knaut, p.196.

  32. Cambridge History, I, i, 359.

  33. Ovando, president of the committee that prepared the law, had the Las Casas manuscripts brought to Madrid for study: Lewis Hanke, Aristotle and the American Indians, London 1959, pp.86–7.

  34. Miguel Angel de Bunes Ibarra, ‘Felipe II y el Mediterráneo: la frontera olvidada y la frontera presente’, in Felipe II (1527–1598): Europa y la Monarquía Católica, 4 vols, Madrid 1998, I, i, 100–102.

  35. For the concept of the mission on the frontier, the seminal study is that of Herbert Bolton, ‘The mission as a frontier institution in the Spanish American colonies’, AHR, xxiii, 1917–18. There are excellent comments on the Spanish situation in Weber, pp. 11–13.

  36. Jara, pp.94, 99.

  37. Ibid., pp.124–5.

  38. Cited by J. Israel, ‘Spanish imperial strategy in northern New Spain’, El Hispanismo anglonorteamericano, 2 vols, Córdoba 2001, I, 522.

  39. Powell, p. 169.

  40. Lane, p. 18.

  41. Otte 1988, p.581.

  42. Milhou 1976, p.14.

  43. Hoffman, Paul E., The Spanish crown and the defense of the Caribbean, 1535–1585, Baton Rouge 1980, p.12.

  44. For its activity, see Hoffman, Defense, pp.130, 134, 187.

  45. Andrews 1984, p.129.

  46. R. D. Hussey, ‘Spanish reaction to foreign aggression in the Caribbean to about 1680’, HAHR, 4, 1929, 286–302.

  47. Goodman 1988, p. 127.

  48. Andrews 1984, p.283.

  49. Andrews 1978, p.159.

  50. Engel Sluiter, ‘Dutch maritime power and the colonial status quo, 1585-1641’, PHR, xi, 1942, p.32.

  51. Peter Gerhard, Pirates on the west coast of New Spain 1575–1742, Glendale 1960, p.239.

  52. Pérez-Mallaína and Tor
res Ramirez, p.218.

  53. Bradley, p. 19.

  54. Ibid., p.40.

  55. Gerhard, Pirates, p.124; Bradley, pp.52–63.

  56. Bradley, p.28.

  57. In Lima the available civil defence in the late seventeenth century could count on three coloured residents to every Spaniard available: see Bradley, p.183.

  58. Cited b A. Pérotin-Dumon in Tracy, p. 211.

  59. Cf. ibid., p.223.

  60. Cf. Andrews 1978, p.79.

  61. The Portuguese Crown had a similar privilege, the padroado.

  62. Figures from Pedro Borges, El envío de misioneros a América durante la época española, Salamanca 1977.

  63. Gerónimo de Mendieta, Historia eclesiástica indiana, Mexico 1997, pp.36–37

  64. Cf. Francisco Javier Alegre SJ, Historia de la Provincia de la Compañia de Jesús de Nueva España, vol. IV (1676–1766), Rome 1960.

  65. Cutter and Engstrand, pp.144–164.

  66. Phelan 1956, pp.60, 69.

  67. Cf. Adriaan C. Van Oss, Catholic colonialism. A parish history of Guatemala 1524–1821, Cambridge 1986, pp.57–8.

  68. Weber, p.95.

  69. For the beginnings of the Counter Reformation in Spain, see Kamen 1993.

  70. Bolton, p.309 n.2.

  71. An excellent description in Spicer, pp.288–298.

  72. Ibid., p.324.

  73. Quoted by Monique Mustapha, ‘L'évangile par la force? Le clergé colonial vu par Acosta’, in J.P. Duviols and A. Molinié-Bertrand, La violence en Espagne et en Amérique (XVe-XIXe siécles), Paris 1997, p.179.

  74. Knaut, p.7.

  75. Van Oss (cited above, n.67), pp.143–144.

  76. cite the translation in Weber, p. 106.

  77. Cf. Weber, pp. 130–133.

  78. Weber, p.105.

  79. On strategies, see the excellent section in ibid., pp. 107–121.

  80. Knaut, p.69.

  81. Sauer, p.189.

  82. Crosby, p.88.

  83. Fisher, p.35.

  84. Cited in Crosby, p.84.

  85. Wachtel, pp.279, 226.

  86. Laverne H. Clark, They sang for horses. The impact of the horse on Navajo and Apache folklore, Tucson 1966, p.29.

  87. As explained brilliantly by Melville, p.6.

  88. The phrase appears to have been originated by Alfred W. Crosby; see his Ecological imperialism: the biological expansion of Europe, 900–1900, New York 1986.

  89. Reff, p.276.

  90. Spicer, p. 166.

  91. Melville, p.47.

  92. Ibid., p.79.

  93. Alvaro Huerga, ‘La pre-Inquisición hispanoamericana’, in J. Pérez Villanueva and B. Escandell Bonet, Historia de la Inquisición en España y America, vol.I, Madrid 1984, p.662.