Spain's Road to Empire
Page 72
102. Ibid., pp.443–444.
103. Spicer, pp. 189–191.
104. Grahn, pp.38–41.
105. Scott, pp.2, 10.
106. I borrow the definition by Jonathan Hill in Hill, pp.1–2.
107. Gary C. Anderson, The Indian southwest, 1580–1830. Ethnogenesis and reinvention, Norman, OK, 1999, p.34.
108. Nancy P. Hickerson, ‘Ethnogenesis in the south plains’, in Hill, p.74.
109. Larson and Harris, p.27.
110. Ibid., p.25.
111. Steve J. Stern, ‘The variety and ambiguity of native Andean intervention in European colonial markets’, in Larson and Harris, p.77.
112. Inga Clendinnen, ‘Landscape and world view: the survival of Yucatec Maya culture under Spanish conquest’, in Foster, p.445.
113. Rafael Varon, ‘El Taki Onqoy: las raices andinas de un fenómeno colonial’, in Millones, pp.339–40
114. Millones, p.178.
115. López-Baralt, p.302.
116. The literature for each of the countries named is substantial, but marginal to the present book.
117. Léon van der Essen and G. J. Hoogewerff, Le sentiment national dans les Pays-Bas, Brussels 1944, p.38
118. Ibid., p.81.
119. Ibid., p.45.
120. Kamen 1997, pp.309, 318; Rodríguez Villa, p.570.
121. Kamen 1997, p.241.
122. The classic study for the sixteenth century is Sverker Arnoldsson; for some aspects of the later period see Hillgarth, chap.7.
123. Numerous cases detailed in Garcia Cerezeda, passim.
124. Sepúlveda, II, 96.
125. Rubens, p.258.
126. Tocco, pp.32–34, 68.
127. Ibid., pp.9–10.
128. Ibid., pp.34–40.
129. Ibid., pp.17, 25.
130. The best survey of the Cruz affair is Alvaro Huerga, whose exposition I follow.
131. The effective rediscovery of Cruz was made by Marcel Bataillon in his Erasme et l'Espagne, Paris 1937.
132. My outline follows some of the points in Huerga, pp.272–295.
133. Quoted in ibid., p.292.
134. Martin González de Cellorigo, Memorial de la política necesaria y útil restauración a la república de España, Valladolid 1600, p.15.
135. Sancho de Moncada, Restauración politica de España, Madrid 1619, p.22.
136. The immense literature on Las Casas can be conveniently approached through the writings of Lewis Hanke.
137. Phelan 1956, p.82.
138. J. Gayo Aragon, OP, ‘The controversy over justification of Spanish rule in the Philippines’, in Gerald H. Anderson, ed., Studies in Philippine Church history, Ithaca 1969, pp.18–19.
139. Quoted in Parker 1998, p.284.
140. Iñigo Ibáñez de Santa Cruz, ‘El ignorante y confuso gobierno’, BL Cott. Vespasian C.XIII, ff.375–87. Another version in BL Eg.329 f.16 onwards.
141. ‘Discurso al Rey nuestro Señor del estado que tienen sus reynos’; the text has recently been published (Madrid 1990).
142. Sepúlveda, III, 65.
143. Maravall, I, 501.
144. Sáinz Rodríguez, p.82.
145. Cited in Kamen 1969, p.392.
146. For what follows, see Pagden 1982, chap.7.
147. Pagden 1982, p.162.
148. Olwer, p.121. This is a translation of a work published in Spanish in Mexico in 1952.
149. Gage, p.234.
150. Nicholas Griffiths, The cross and the serpent. Religious repression and resurgence in colonial Peru, Norman, OK 1996, p.263.
151. Lance Grahn, ‘“Chicha in the chalice”: spiritual conflict in Spanish American mission culture’, in Griffiths and Cervantes, p.261.
152. Cutter and Engstrand, pp. 122–13 2. The standard study is Herbert E. Bolton, Ruin of Christendom. A biography of Eusebio Francisco Kino, Tucson 1984 (repr. of 1936 edn).
153. Quoted in Spicer, p.310.
154. Grahn, ‘“Chicha in the chalice”’, p.268.
Chapter 9: Shoring up the Empire (1630–1700)
1. Cited in J. M. Jover, 1635. Historia de una polémica y semblanza de una generación, Madrid 1949, p.401 n. 26.
2. Galasso, p.325.
3. There is a brilliant summary of the importance of the Milanese financiers by Giuseppe De Luca, ‘Hombres de negocios milaneses al servicio de la Monarquía Hispánica’, Torre de Lujanes, 46 (2002), pp. 177–131.
4. Rubens, p.260, in a letter of 1628.
5. Tocco, pp.99, 103, 124.
6. A comment of 1628, in Rubens, p.258.
7. Cited in Stradling 1994, p.101.
8. Rubens, p.142.
9. Stradling 1994, p.275.
10. Rodriguez Villa, p.593.
11. Rubens, p.368.
12. Essen 1944, pp.23–24; Henri Pirenne, Histoire de Belgique, 3rd edn, Brussels 1927, vol.IV, pp.260–266.
13. Stradling 1994, p.107.
14. Essen 1944, p.112.
15. Ibid., p.185.
16. Aedo y Gallart, pp.7, 98. The cavalry was Italian and Flemish; Germans and Italians made up 80 per cent of the infantry. The army was augmented, before Nördlingen, by detachments of Belgian infantry and cavalry from Brussels: Essen 1944, p.414.
17. The most accessible summary of the battle in English is in C. V. Wedgwood, The Thirty Years' War, Harmondsworth 1957, pp.327–335.
18. The image of the victory as a Spanish one is transmitted in many Spanish historical works, where the crucial role of the Imperial troops is ignored, and the fact that 90 per cent of the army was non-Spanish is not mentioned.
19. Aedo y Gallart, p.128.
20. Quoted in Parker 1984, p. 141.
21. Georges Pages, La Guerre de Trente Ans, Paris 1949, p.181.
22. Written at Brussels, Feb. 1626: Rubens, p. 130.
23. Stradling 1994, pp.109–117.
24. Ibid., p.118.
25. Matías de Novoa, cited in Arco y Garay, p.546.
26. Cited in J. M. Jover (cited above, n.1), p.408 n.51.
27. ‘Hermetism’ was in Late Renaissance times an occult philosophy that claimed to find knowledge in pre-Christian sources.
28. The Inquisition in Naples was an autonomous section of the Italian body of that name, and not connected with the Spanish Inquisition.
29. Headley, p.52.
30. Quoted in Pagden 1990, p.51.
31. Headley, p.214.
32. Pagden 1990, p.44.
33. J. L. Palos, Catalunya a l'Imperi dels Àustria, Lleida 1994, pp.105–109.
34. Rodriguez Villa, pp.700–704.
35. Vargas Machuca, I, 61.
36. Report by bishop of Solsona, 15 Oct 1694, printed in Antonio Valladares de Sotomayor, Semanario Erudito, 34 vols, Madrid 1788, vol.30, p.267.
37. Ruth Mackay, The limits of royal authority, Cambridge 1999, p.69.
38. Rodriguez Villa, p.42.
39. Essen 1944, p.121.
40. Goodman 1997, pp.202–205.
41. Ibid., p.207.
42. Ibid., p.208.
43. Quoted in Thompson 1992, chap.IV pp.9–11.
44. Boxer 1967, pp.375–382.
45. John R. Shepherd, Statecraft and political economy on the Taiwan frontier 1600–1800, Stanford 1993, p.56.
46. Ibid., p.58.
47. I agree with the view of Israel, in Israel 1997, chap.4, that Spain did not intend to substitute the offensive against the Dutch for one against France.
48. M. A. Echevarría, Flandes y la monarquía hispánica 1500–1713, Madrid 1998, p.312.
49. Alcalá Zamora, p.399.
50. These figures come from ibid., pp.429–33.
51. Israel 1982, p.268.
52. My estimates follow Stradling 1992, p.107.
53. Alcalá Zamora, p.459.
54. Ibid., p.458.
55. This and other quotations in these pages are taken from my chapter, ‘La política exterior’, in vol.VIII of the Historia general de España y América: La crisis de la hegemonía española,
siglo XVII, Ediciones Rialp, Madrid 1986.
56. Ricardo del Arco y Garay, La erudición española en el siglo XVII y el cronista de Aragón Andrés de Uztarroz, 2 vols, Madrid 1950, I, 259.
57. Quoted in Schwartz 1991, p.749.
58. Cf. the excellent discussion in Boyajian 1993, pp. 167–72.
59. Israel 1982, p.277.
60. Hernán Asdrúbal Silva, ‘Marginalidad rioplatense’, p.968.
61. Boyajian 1993, p.21.
62. Ibid., p.33.
63. Ibid., p. 13.
64. Elkan Adler, ‘Documents sur les Marranes d'Espagne et de Portugal sous Philippe IV’, REJ, 49, 1904.
65. Cited in S. Subrahmanyam and Luis Thomaz, ‘The Portuguese in the Indian Ocean’, in Tracy, p.305.
66. Boyajian 1983, chap.3.
67. Ibid., p.44.
68. Ibid., pp.121–5.
69. Quoted in Boyajian 1983, p.139.
70. Tocco, p.263.
71. G. Signorotto, ‘Il Marchese di Caracena al governo di Milano’, in Cheiron, 17–18, 1992, p.149.
72. Ibid., pp. 164–66.
73. My account of the battle of Rocroi is based on the Mercure françois for that week, as given in Geoffrey Symcox, War, diplomacy and imperialism, 1618–1763, New York 1974, p.135.
74. From a letter of Melo to the king in 1643, quoted by Geoffrey Parker in Thomas and Verdonk, p.283.
75. Stradling 1994, p.288.
76. Domínguez Ortiz, p.74.
77. Goodman 1997, p.29.
78. This book was completed when I learnt of the publication of the fine thesis by Manuel Herrero Sánchez, El acercamiento hispano-neerlandés (1648–1678), Madrid 2000. His study covers in detail the diplomatic side of the argument presented here.
79. Barbour, pp.32–33, 35
80. The theme has been little studied; but see J. C. M. Boeijen, ‘Een bijzondere Vijand. Spaanse kroniekschrijvers van de Tachtigjarige Oorlog’, in Tussen twee culturen. De Nederlanden en de Iberische wereld 1550–1800, Nijmegen 1991.
81. Israel 1997, p.209. Herrero Sánchez, p.53 n.58 states the number as eight.
82. Herrero Sánchez, p.63.
83. Quoted by ibid., p.82.
84. Israel 1982, pp.418–427.
85. Barbour, p.110.
86. Ibid., p.101.
87. Quoted in R. A. Stradling, Europe and the decline of Spain, London 1981, p.161.
88. Herrero Sánchez, p.195.
89. Ibid., p. 158.
90. The best study, based principally on French sources, is by Emile Laloy, La révolte de Messine, l'expédition de Sicile et la politique française en Italie (1674-1678), 3 vols, Paris 1929–1931.
91. David Salinas, La diplomacia española en las relaciones con Holanda durante el reinado de Carlos II (1665–1700), Madrid 1989, p.54.
92. Goodman 1997, p.6.
93. Ibid., pp. 114–124.
94. Otero Lana, p.267. I have excluded small vessels (pataches) from these figures.
95. Alcalá Zamora, p.52.
96. Goodman 1997, p.134.
97. B. Torres Ramirez, La Armada de Barlovento, Seville 1981, p.75.
98. Alcalá Zamora, pp.68–9.
99. Pérez-Mallaína and Torres Ramirez, p. 215.
100. Otero Lana, pp.259–260.
101. Ibid., p. 56. The author distinguishes between categories of ‘armed ships’ and ‘corsairs’; I have added both together.
102. Otero Lana, p.225.
103. Details in Kamen 1980, p.381.
104. Richard J. Shell, ‘The Marianas population decline: seventeenth-century estimates’, The Journal of Pacific History, 34 (3), 1999, p.304.
105. Robert F. Rogers, Destiny's Landfall. A History of Guam, Honolulu 1995, p.72.
106. Schurz 1939, p.49.
107. Francisco Mallari SJ, ‘Muslim raids in Bicol 1580–1792, PS, 34, 1986, p.264.
108. Parker 1988, p.112.
109. Schurz 1939, p.321.
110. Furber, pp.271–2.
111. Pierre Chaunu, Les Philippines et le Pacifique des Ibériques, Paris 1960, p.255.
112. My italics; in Bolton, p.308.
113. Spicer, pp. 159–160.
114. Cf. Henry W. Bowden, American Indians and Christian missions. Studies in cultural conflict, Chicago 1981, p.55. There is an excellent summary of the revolt in Cutter & Engstrand, pp.91–117.
115. Bolton, pp.338–339.
116. Bannon, p.86.
117. Murdo J. MacLeod, ‘Dominican explanations for revolts and their suppression in colonial Chiapas 1545–1715’, in Susan E. Ramirez, ed., Indian-Religious relations in colonial Spanish America, Syracuse 1989, p.46.
118. Weber, p.143.
119. Quoted in Verner W. Crane, The southern frontier 1670–1732, Westport 1956, p.81.
120. Weddle, p.82.
121. Ibid., p.83.
122. Letter of Fray Damián Massanet to Carlos de Sigüenza, in Bolton, p.369.
123. Quoted in Ellis, p.107.
124. Lane, pp.114–125.
125. Ward, p.173.
126. Bradley, p. 105.
127. Pérez-Mallaína and Torres Ramirez, pp.295–299.
128. Bradley, pp. 129–156.
129. Quoted in Bradley, p. 160.
130. Bradley, p.163.
131. Postma, p.14.
132. Quoted in Donnan, I, 348.
133. Donnan, I, 108.
134. Postma, p.55.
135. Palmer 1981, p.98.
136. Pauline Croft, The Spanish Company, London 1973, p.xxiii.
137. Croft, p.xlix.
138. Donnan, I, 110.
139. Donnan, I, 116.
140. Padfield II, p. 180.
141. Cited Attman 1983, p.32.
142. Barbour, p.50.
143. Attman 1983, p.33.
144. Barbour, p. 51
145. Parker 1979, p.188.
146. The phrase is by Attman 1983, p.33.
147. Cf. Stradling 1992, p.18: ‘The hegemonic empire had arrived at the bizarre situation of dependence for consumer materials on its main adversary.’
148. Quoted in Herrero Sánchez, p.364.
149. All details in the following section, come from Kamen 1980.
150. New figures for bullion imports were given in ibid., pp.131–140; and in Michel Morineau, Incroyables gazettes et trésors merveilleux, London 1985.
151. Francisco Martínez de Mata, Memoriales, ed. Gonzalo Anés, Madrid 1971, pp.149–150.
Chapter 10: Under New Management
1. Kamen 1969, p.133.
2. The Histoire militaire de la France: vol.I: des origines à 1715, ed. Philippe Contamine, Paris 1992, p.3 89, estimates the total military manpower of France in the 1690s at 600,000.
3. Cited in Kamen 1969, p.26.
4. A. Morel-Fatio and H. Léonardon, eds, Recueil des Instructions données aux ambassadeurs, vol.12, Espagne, Paris 1898, p.8.
5. The following paragraphs draw on material in my Philip V of Spain. The king who reigned twice, New Haven, CT and London 2001.
6. Details in Kamen 1969, chap.4.
7. For the battle, Arthur Parnell, The War of the Succession in Spain during the reign of Queen Anne 1702–1711, London 1905, pp.210–222.
8. The figures cited here are based on the careful study by Parnell, chap.XXIV. There are numerous other estimates, made by officers who were present, that offer much higher figures.
9. J. W. Stoye, in The New Cambridge Modern History, vol.VI, Cambridge 1970, p.597.
10. Cited in Parnell, p.257.
11. Quoted in Bernal, p.315.
12. Attman 1983, p.30.
13. Ct. the discussion in Attman 1986, pp.30–33.
14. Quoted in Bernal, p.299.
15. See figures in Kamen, Philip V, pp.241–242.
16. Cristina Borreguero, Extranjeros al servicio del ejército español del siglo XVIII’, in Coloquio Internacional Carlos III y su siglo. Actas, 2 vols, Madrid 1990, II, 78–79.
17. AGS Guerra Moderna leg.2362, �
�Gastos generales de los ejércitos’.
18. Cited in Lynch, p.125.
19. For example, the contracts cited by Joan Mercader, Felip V i Catalunya, Barcelona 1968, pp.217–32. Cf. Geoffrey J. Walker, Spanish politics and imperial trade 1700–1789, London 1979, p.96.
20. Cf. M. A. Alonso Aguilera, La conquista y el dominio español de Sardinia (1717–1720), Valladolid 1977, pp.49–56.
21. Cited by D. Ozanam, in Historia de España Menéndez Pidal, Madrid 2000, vol.XXIX, i, 589.
22. Padfield II, p.184. Micaela Mata, Menorca Británica, vol.I. 1712–1727, Mahon 1994, p.138.
23. A. Meijide Pardo, La invasión inglesa de Galicia en 1719, Santiago 1970.
24. ‘Il est de l'intérêt des Espagnols de la [Ceuta] bien défendre, car sans elle le prétexte de la Bulle de la Croissade cesserait et avec elle le profit immense qu'elle rapporte au Roi’ [It is in the interest of Spaniards to defend Ceuta, for without it they would not have the excuse to raise the Crusade tax, an immense source of profit to the King]: Voyage du Père Labat en Espagne 1705–6, Paris 1927, p.232.
25. Cited in Arco y Garay, p.646.
26. Stein and Stein, p.149.
27. There is no surviving original manuscript of the work, which was written around 1740. It has been attributed to Campillo, and as such discussed in Pagden 1995, pp. 120–21. It has also quite plausibly been attributed to Melchor de Macanaz, and under that authorship has been analysed by Stein and Stein, pp.221–226.
28. Cited by C. Mozzarelli, ‘Patrizi e governatore nello stato di Milano’, in Cheiron, 17–18, 1992, p.130.
29. Franco Venturi, ‘L'Italia fuori d'Italia’, Storia d'Italia, III: Dal primo Sette-cento all'Unità, Turin 1973, p.1019.
30. Pagden 1990, p.68.
31. Ibid., p.86.
32. Arauz, p.138.
33. Schurz 1939, p.329.
34. Cf. Pérez-Mallaína and Torres Ramirez, p.230.
35. Kamen 1969, pp.146, 152.
36. Quoted in Pérez-Mallaína and Torres Ramirez, p.232.
37. E. W. Dahlgren, Les relations commerciales et maritimes entre la France et les côtes de l'Océan Pacifique, Paris 1909, p.633.
38. Weber, p.155.
39. Bannon, p.114.
40. A point made by Weber, p. 163.
41. Quoted in Bannon, p.122.
42. Weber, p.174.
43. Weddle, p.302.
44. Cited in Weber, p. 179.
45. According to an eyewitness, prisoners were bound helpless and then set alight to burn to death.
46. David Hurst Thomas, ed., Ethnology of the Indians of Spanish Florida, New York 1991, p.123.