The Ecology Book

by DK

  See also: Macroecology

  NANCY GRIMM

  1955–

  Based at Arizona State University, Grimm is a climate change ecologist and sustainability scientist, whose research concentrates on the interaction of climate change, human activity, and ecosystems. Her work has particularly focused on the movement of water and chemicals through ecosystems. Grimm is a past president of the Ecological Society of America and a senior scientist on the US Global Climate Change Research Program.

  See also: Ecosystem services

  TIM FLANNERY

  1956–

  One of Australia’s most prominent environmentalists, Flannery earned a Ph.D. in 1984 from the University of New South Wales for his work on kangaroo evolution. He later built a reputation as a mammalogist, discovering several new species, and as an expert on climate change. He was chief commissioner of the Climate Commission, an Australian government body, and champions renewable energy.

  See also: Renewable energy

  SUSAN KAMINSKYJ

  1956–

  From her laboratory at the University of Saskatchewan, Canada, Kaminskyj—a cell biologist and mycologist—has pioneered the use of fungi to clean oil-contaminated site, in a process known as bioremediation. Kaminskyj and her team found that when seeds are treated with a fungus named TSTh20-1, plants can establish in the substrate of such land and clean the soil as they grow.

  See also: Ubiquity of mycorrhizae • Pollution

  ROSEMARY GILLESPIE

  1957–

  Scottish-born Gillespie studied zoology at the University of Edinburgh before moving to the US to earn her Ph.D. at the University of Tennessee. She is known particularly for investigations into what drives biodiversity at species level, concentrating her evolution research on “hotspot archipelagos” such as the Hawaiian chain, where the date of each island is already known with some accuracy. Most of her work is focused on the evolution of spider species. Gillespie is based at the University of California, Berkeley, where she runs the EvoLab, a research group that focuses on arthropods, such as spiders and insects.

  See also: Thermoregulation in insects • Island biogeography

  HARVEY LOCKE

  1959–

  Born in Calgary, Canada, Locke trained and practiced as a lawyer before switching to full-time conservation work in 1999. He is committed to areas of ecology known as large landscape and connectivity conservation, which involve the connection of all lands, whether urban or wild, across a wide network. Locke was a founder of the Yellowstone to Yukon Conservation Initiative, which campaigns to create a continuous wildlife corridor between those two areas of North America. In 2009, Locke also cofounded the Nature Needs Half movement, which advocates for the protection of half of Earth’s land and water area by 2050. Locke argues that this policy is necessary to avoid a sixth mass extinction on Earth.

  See also: Mass extinctions

  MAJORA CARTER

  1966–

  When her dog led her through a degraded brownfield site to the banks of the Bronx River, in her native New York City, Carter realized the potential for the regeneration of this area. She won funding from the city council to develop Hunts Point Riverside Park on the site, providing a natural retreat and river access for locals. Subsequently her organization, Sustainable South Bronx (SSBx), advocated and won support for “green” urban renewal in disadvantaged communities elsewhere in New York. SSBx also campaigns to improve air quality and food choices.

  See also: The Green Movement

  SARAH HARDY

  1974–

  Hardy is an American marine biologist and polar explorer who studies the effect on the environment of deep-ocean mining. She argues that to protect marine communities and biodiversity it is important to develop a systematic approach to the zoning of the oceans—with deep-sea marine protection areas a priority. Hardy studied marine biology at the University of California and earned her Ph.D. in oceanography at the University of Hawaii in 2005.

  See also: A plastic wasteland

  KATEY WALTER ANTHONY

  1976–

  Based at the University of Alaska, Walter Anthony is an aquatic ecosystems ecologist specializing in polar environments. She has studied carbon dioxide and methane emissions from lakes in the North American Arctic. In 2017, she discovered that unusually large amounts of methane were escaping from an Arctic lake, where the gas was seeping into the water from greater depths than previously discovered. If replicated elsewhere, such emissions from reserves deep in the permafrost could produce a dramatic increase in the amount of methane in the atmosphere.

  See also: The Keeling Curve

  AUTUMN PELTIER

  2004–

  Peltier, a member of the Wikwemikong First Nation who lives in Ontario, Canada, is a campaigner for clean drinking water, arguing that humanity should treat water with greater respect. In 2018, at the age of 13, she was one of the youngest people ever to speak to the UN General Assembly. Here, she advocated the policy that “No child should grow up not knowing what clean drinking water is, or never know what running water is.”

  See also: The water crisis

  GLOSSARY

  Abiotic Nonliving; often used to refer to the nonliving components of an ecosystem (such as climate and temperature).

  Abundance The number of a given species within an ecosystem; an abundant species is strongly represented within the wider population.

  Acid rain Any form of precipitation with high levels of acidity, causing damage to the environment; may occur naturally or as a result of human activity.

  Anthropogenic Originating in, or influenced by, human activity.

  Apex predator A predator that is not prey for any other species.

  Atmosphere The layer of gases surrounding Earth. It also protects organisms from ultraviolet radition.

  Autotroph A producer; an organism that makes its own food from sources such as light, water, and chemicals in the air.

  Behavioral ecology The study of animal behavior and how ecological pressures influence this.

  Biodegradable Usually used in reference to waste products, meaning something that can be broken down by natural processes.

  Biodiversity The variety of ecological life within a given geographical area, encompassing variety between and within species.

  Biogeography The study of how plants and animals are distributed geographically, and the changes to this distribution over time.

  Biological community A collection of living organisms within one location; when combined with their environment, they make an ecosystem.

  Biomass The total quantity of a given organism within a habitat, generally expressed as weight or volume. Also a type of fuel made from organic matter, usually burned to generate electricity.

  Biome An area of Earth that can be classified according to the species of plant and animal life within it.

  Biosphere The layer of Earth in which life can exist, situated between the atmosphere and lithosphere; the sum of all ecosystems on the planet.

  Botany The scientific study of plant life.

  Carnivore An organism which eats only meat.

  Catastrophism The theory that changes in Earth’s crust were caused by dramatic and unusual events, as opposed to gradual change over time.

  Cells The smallest structural and biological unit that can survive on its own; the “building blocks” of all life on Earth.

  Citizen science Scientific research carried out by amateurs, typically involving large-scale data collection.

  Climate change A shift in the world’s interconnected weather patterns; a gradual natural process exacerbated by human actions.

  Climax A biological community or ecosystem that has reached a stable point, so that populations of organisms will remain steady. This is the end result of succession, in which the type of species and population sizes that make up a community change over time.

  Climax species A plant species that will not change as long as its environment remains stable
.

  Clutch size The number of eggs laid in one birthing.

  Community ecology The study of how species interact within a given geographical space.

  Competitive exclusion principle The idea that multiple species reliant on exactly the same resources cannot exist together without one population rising and the other falling, as one will always have an advantage over another.

  Coniferous Describes trees with seed cones which mostly do not shed their needlelike leaves during winter.

  Conservation The protection and preservation of animal life, plant life, and natural resources.

  Consumer A species that eats other organisms to obtain its required nutrients; this term can apply to any organism that is not at the very bottom of the food chain

  Deciduous Describes trees that shed their leaves in the fall.

  Decomposers Organisms, primarily bacteria and fungi, that break down dead organisms and waste matter to obtain energy.

  Deforestation The cutting down of a large area of trees, carried out for a range of purposes, including farming, industry, and construction.

  Detritivores Organisms that feed on waste matter.

  Diatom Any of a large group of microscopic algae that often play an important role in stabilizing an ecosystem and facilitating the existence of a range of life forms.

  Diversity A measure of the variety of species within a biological community or ecosystem.

  DNA Deoxyribonucleic acid. A large molecule in the shape of a double helix that carries genetic information in a chromosome.

  Ecology The scientific study of the relationships between living organisms and their environment.

  Ecosystem A community of organisms in a given environment that interact with and affect one another.

  Ecosystem services The benefits humans receive from an ecosystem; a term highlighting the importance of the environment to humanity.

  Endangered Describes a species whose population is so small that it is at risk of dying out completely.

  Epidemiology The study of how diseases spread through populations, and the impact this has on the wider ecosystem.

  Ethology The scientific study of the evolution of animal behavior as an adaptive trait, with a particular focus on observing animals in their natural habitat.

  Evolution The process by which species change over time as traits are passed down over generations.

  Extinction The permanent dying out of an entire species.

  Extirpation Extinction of a species on a local level—when a species dies out within a specific geographic area but still exists elsewhere on the planet.

  Feedback loop The effect that one part of an ecosystem has on the rest, and how this change feeds back into the system as a whole.

  Fertilizers Substances, which can be either natural or chemical, that are added to soil to increase its nutrient content and help plants grow more successfully.

  Fieldwork Studies undertaken in the wild, rather than under controlled laboratory conditions.

  Food chain A series of predators and prey, in which each organism is dependent on the preceding lifeform for food.

  Food web A collection of food chains within an ecosystem and the connections between them, illustrating how communities interact on a wider scale to survive.

  Fossil The remains of a prehistoric organism, preserved and solidified in sedimentary rock or amber.

  Fossil fuel Nonrenewable fuels formed over millions of years from plant and animal remains.

  Fracking A process by which oil or gas can be extracted from the ground. Fracking involves drilling down and injecting liquid into the rock at a high pressure in order to force the oil and gas to the surface.

  Fungi A group of organisms, including mushrooms, that produce spores and feed on organic matter. Unlike plants, fungi do not utilize sunlight for growth.

  Gene The most basic unit of heredity; part of a DNA molecule that transmits characteristics from a parent to its offspring.

  Genome The complete set of an organism’s genes.

  Geology The scientific study of Earth’s physical formation and structure. Geologists examine our planet’s history and the ongoing processes that are acting upon it.

  Global warming A gradual increase in the temperature of Earth’s atmosphere caused by the accumulation of greenhouse gases.

  GMO Genetically Modified Organism—any life form that has been artificially and chemically altered by engineering techniques that modify its DNA.

  Greenhouse effect The way in which gases in Earth’s atmosphere trap heat. The buildup of these gases leads to global warming.

  Greenhouse gas Gases such as carbon dioxide and methane that absorb energy reflected by Earth’s surface, stopping it from escaping into space.

  Green Movement A political ideology that encourages a greater focus on the importance of the environment, and asks people to take action to prevent damage to Earth’s natural habitats.

  Groundwater Water found below Earth’s surface, such as in spaces in the soil, sand, or rock.

  Habitat The area in which an organism naturally lives.

  Herbivore An organism that eats only plants.

  Homeostasis The regulation of conditions within an organism, such as temperature, water, and carbon dioxide, to maintain a stable internal state.

  Hypothesis An idea or assumption, used as the starting point for a theory, which is then tested through scientific experimentation.

  Inheritance The passing on of genetic qualities and behavioral predispositions to offspring, through both genetic information and parental nurture.

  Invasive species A nonnative species that has been introduced to an ecosystem and spreads rapidly, damaging the ecological balance of the area.

  Irrigation The controlled application of water to areas of land, usually through the creation of channels, to help crops grow.

  Keystone species A species that plays a centrally important role in an ecosystem, often disproportionate to its biomass, and whose removal would alter or endanger the entire ecosystem.

  Kin selection An evolutionary strategy whereby individuals pursue the best tactic for their relatives’ survival, even at the expense of their own safety, wellbeing, or reproduction.

  Mass extinction The widespread and rapid dying out of an abnormally large number—at least half—of all species; this sharp change in biodiversity usually marks a shift to a new geological era in our planet’s history.

  Metabolism The chemical processes that occur within the cells of an organism to keep it alive, such as the processes that enable the digestion of food.

  Metacommunity A set of independent communities that interact and are connected by the movement of some species between those communities.

  Metapopulation A collection of smaller populations of a given species that are linked by the movement of some individuals.

  Microorganism An organism, invisible to the human eye, that can only be seen with a microscope, such as a bacterium, virus, or fungus; also known as a microbe.

  Migration A large-scale movement of a species from one environment to another; often occurs seasonally.

  Monoculture Using land for the cultivation or growth of only one type of plant or animal. This often has damaging effects on the land, as it can decrease its mineral value.

  Morphology The study of the external structure of organisms.

  Mutation A change of structure within an organism’s DNA, which may result in a genetic transformation giving it uncharacteristic traits. One example of a mutation is albinism, a lack of pigmentation.

  Mutualism A situation in which two or more organisms depend on each other for survival.

  Mycorrhizae Types of fungi that grow among the roots of plants and exist in a symbiotic relationship with these plants.

  Natural selection The process by which characteristics that increase an organism’s chances of reproducing are preferentially passed on.

  Niche The specific space and role that a species occupies within an ecosystem.


  Omnivore An organism that feeds on both animals and plants.

  Organism General term for any living thing, from single-cell bacteria to complex, multicellular life forms such as plants and animals.

  Ornithology A branch of biology that concerns the study of birds.

  Overfishing The depletion of the fish population in a given area as a result of fishing too intensively.

  Ozone layer Part of the upper level of Earth’s atmosphere, with a high concentration of ozone (O3) molecules; provides protection from ultraviolet radiation.

  Paleontology The study of fossils and biology of Earth’s geological past. Paleobotany is the branch studying plant fossils.

  Parasite An organism that lives on or in another organism, and obtains nutrients from its host.

  Pesticides Chemicals used to kill certain types of pest in order to protect cultivated plants. They can, however, also kill nontarget species and damage the wider ecosystem.

  Photosynthesis The process by which plants and algae transfer the Sun’s light energy into chemical energy as glucose, allowing it to be passed along the food chain. The process absorbs carbon dioxide and releases oxygen.

  Physiology A branch of biology that focuses on the everyday functioning of organisms.

  Pollination The transfer of pollen from a male plant part to a female one—by birds, insects, and other animals, or by the wind—enabling fertilization and seed production.

  Pollution The introduction of harmful contaminants to the natural environment, inducing changes to the atmosphere.

  Predator A species that hunts other animal species for food.