Political futurology in the Middle East is perhaps best left to astrologers, but some attempts to analyse the present with an eye to the future are worthwhile. Two works by Lebanese writers are F. Ajami’s The Arab Predicament: Arab Political Thought and Practice Since 1967 (Cambridge, 1981) and G. Corm’s Fragmentation of the Middle East (London, 1988). There are also two excellent collections of essays: H. Sharabi’s The Next Arab Decade: Alternative Futures (Boulder and London, 1988) and the series in four volumes edited by Giacomo Lucini of the Istituto Affari Internazionali, Rome, under the general title Nation, State and Integration in the Arab World (London and New York, 1988). Y. Sayigh’s The Arab Economy 1930–1980: Past Performance and Future Prospects (Oxford, 1982) is by one of the Arab world’s leading analysts. For a useful collection of essays on the currents of political debate in the region, the reader should consult Civil Society in the Middle East (Leiden, 1995). Naomi Sakr’s Satellite Realms: Transnational Television, Globalization and the Middle East (London, 2002) is an exceptionally sober and sceptical study, which casts doubt on the positive impact of the electronic media age in the Arab world.
For general reference, Europa Publications’ The Middle East and North Africa (London, 1948–) is published annually. Two more reference works of high standard are The Cambridge Encyclopaedia of the Middle East and North Africa (Cambridge, 1988), executive editor Trevor Mostyn and advisory editor Albert Hourani, and the second revised edition of The Middle East in the ‘Handbooks to the Modern World’ series (New York and Oxford, 1987), edited by Michael Adams. D. Hiro’s Dictionary of the Middle East (London, 1996) is particularly helpful.
TWENTY-FIRST CENTURY ISLAMISM
A vast array of literature of varying quality has emerged in response to 11 September. F. Halliday’s essays in Two Hours That Shook the World (London, 2002) are among the best. Tariq Ali’s The Clash of Fundamentalisms (London 2002) is an engaging juxtaposition of the different views of world politics as seen by the White House and al-Qaeda. J. Cooley’s Unholy Wars: Afghanistan, America and International Terrorism (2002) is a respected journalist’s updated account of the collusion between Washington and the Afghan mujahideen. G. Kepel’s Jihad (London, 2002) charts the development of the Islamist movement from the Iranian Revolution to bin Laden. The 11 September 2001 attacks generated many studies of the neo-jihadi movement and its global impact. Among the best are Fawaz Gerges’s The Far Enemy: Why Jihad Went Global (New York, 2005), Gilles Kepel’s Jihad: The Trail of Political Islam (Cambridge, Mass., 2003) and François Burgat’s Islamism in the Shadows of al-Qaeda (Austin, 2008). Reza Aslan’s How to Win a Cosmic War: God, Globalization and the End of the War on Terror (New York, 2009) is a religious academic’s highly readable account of the appeal of jihadi movements. Noah Feldman, The Fall and Rise of the Islamic State (Princeton, 2008) provides a sympathetic appraisal of the applicability of sharia law both in the past and in the modern world. Omar Ashour’s The De-Radicalization of Jihadists: Transforming Armed Islamist Movements (London, 2009) traces the experience of the Egyptian and Algerian Islamist movements to explain why some have disarmed.
Index
The page numbers in this index refer to the printed version of this book. To find the corresponding locations in the text of this digital version, please use the “search” function on your e-reader. Note that not all terms may be searchable.
Abbas I, of Egypt 69, 97
Abbas I (The Great), Shah of Persia 29, 44, 156
Abbas, Mahmoud 471, 472, 474–5, 499, 507
Abbasid empire 17, 19–20, 22, 25
Abbas Hilmi, Khedive of Egypt 119, 120, 123–4
Abd al-Wahhab. Muhammad Ibn 46
Abduh, Shaikh Muhammad 104, 115, 118, 139
Abdul Aziz, Sultan 82, 89, 90
Abdul Hamid, Sultan 82–95, 102, 104–6, 111–12, 119, 121, 129, 138–46, 147, 149, 162, 183, 242
Abdul Mejid I, Sultan 71
Abdullah, Amir, King of Iraq 205, 206, 209, 210, 233, 235, 236–8, 267, 269–70
Abdullah, Crown Prince, later King, of Saudi Arabia 393, 418, 440, 456, 500, 501, 508
Abdullah, King, of Jordan 476, 478, 479, 505, 510
Abu Dhabi 246, 316, 317–18, 318, 327, 480
Abu Qatada 433
Abukir Bay 50
Aburish, Said 388
Abyssinians 16
Aden 58, 65, 129
Adly Pasha 201
Adnanis 7
al-Afghani, Jamel al-Din 103, 139, 164
Afghanistan 1, 156–62, 373, 427–8, 432–3, 433, 438
African Circle 279, 288, 306
Afro-Asian Conference, Bandung (1955) 280
Agha Khan 161–2, 194
Agha Mohammed 158
AGIP 319
Ahmadinejad, Mahmoud 451, 455, 484–6
Ahmed, Imam, of Yemen 295, 301
Ahmed III, Sultan 45
Ahmed Mirza, Shah of Persia 165, 167
Ain Jalout, Palestine 25
Akhenaten, Pharaoh 2
Alamein, battle of 251
Alawites 22, 154–5, 226, 227, 330, 425
Albright Madelaine 393
Aleppo 22, 175–6, 180
Alexander the Great 7–8, 8
Alexandria 7, 11, 54, 61, 66, 67, 106, 107, 214, 273, 289
Algeria 17, 95, 127, 129, 287, 291, 325, 327, 338, 363, 383, 413–15, 429, 439, 475, 502
Ali, Amir 194
Ali, Iman, cousin of the Prophet 16, 155
Ali, son of King Hussein 209
Ali Bey 48
Ali Pasha 80
Allenby, General (‘The Bull’) 179, 187, 199–203, 213, 217
Amal militia 347, 360
Amer, Field Marshal Abdul Hakim 291, 308, 310
Amini, Ali 367
Amorites 3
Amritsar massacre (1919) 122
Anatolia 78, 85, 89, 91, 93, 170
Anglo-American Middle East Supply Central 251
Anglo-French Joint Note 105
Anglo-Iranian Oil Company 281, 282
Anglo-Kuwaiti Treaty 137
Anglo-Persian Oil Company 167, 238, 239–46
Anglo-Turkish Convention 112
Anglo-Turkish treaty (1838) 64, 74
Annan, Kofi 392
Antioch 7, 11
Antiochus Epiphanes, King 9
Antonius, George 69
Aoun, General Michel 360–1, 362
Arab Bureau 174, 179
Arab Circle 279, 306
Arab League 1, 259, 261, 266, 267, 279, 297, 301, 317, 340, 378, 411
Arab Liberation Army 266
Arab Monetary Fund 384
Arab Revolt 177, 177–8, 179–80, 188
Arab Socialist Union (ASU) 300, 328
Arab Women’s Solidarity Association 431
Arabi, Colonel Ahmed 103–9
Arabia 1; racial types 6–7
Arabian Gulf 7
Arabian-American Oil Company (Aramco) 6, 244
Arabism: and Islam 258
Arab-Israeli Wars: 1948–9 207, 266–8; 1967 Six-Day War 308–9, 312, 313, 315, 342; 1973 Yom Kippur War 320, 331–4, 346; 1969–70 war of attrition 342; 1982 350–1; 1990s 395
‘arabization’ 17, 18
Arafat, Yassir 313, 344–7, 351, 353–9, 371, 378, 397–9, 402, 408, 410
Aref, Colonel 298, 302, 303
Armaeans 3
Armed Islamic Group (GIA) 429
Armenia/Armenians 18–19, 84–5, 92, 92–3, 93, 134, 144, 148, 156, 170, 191
Armenian Revolutionary Federation 92
Arslan, Arp 22–3
Asia Minor 13
Al-Assad, Bashar 416–17, 438–9, 476–7, 477, 500–1
al-Assad, Hafez 22, 315, 330, 334–7, 353, 354, 373, 399, 412, 416
Assyria 5
Aswan 114
Aswan dam 288
Atatürk, Mustafa Kemal 142, 165, 171, 180, 189–91, 194–6, 209, 225, 240, 259, 260, 284, 363, 364, 425
Atiya, Abdel Salam Faraj 424–5
Attl
ee Clement 263
Austria 41
Austro-Hungary 94, 126–7
Ayyubid dynasty 25
Azerbaijan 281, 285
Aziz, Sultan Abdul 80
Azm family 47, 62
Azzam, Abdul Rahman 260, 279
Baath Party 259, 293, 295, 297, 298, 303, 304, 323, 324, 330, 373
Babi movement 162
Babylon/Babylonians 3, 5, 7
Badr, Imam 301
Baghdad 17, 20, 21–2, 22, 40, 135–6, 155, 170, 178, 180, 255, 443, 444, 445, 446–7, 450, 465
Baghdad Pact 279, 282, 285, 290, 293
Bahais 162
Bahrain 44, 244, 317, 318, 417, 422, 441, 456, 481, 488–9, 504, 505–6, 509
Bahrain Petroleum Company (Bapco) 244
Baker, James 395–6
Baldwin, Stanley 215
Balfour, Arthur 124, 126, 185, 198, 199
Balfour Declaration 181, 183, 185, 186, 204, 205, 230, 231, 235
Balkans 1, 82, 83–4, 85, 129, 135, 143, 146
Bandar Abbas 44
al-Banna, Hassan 219, 271, 425
Barak, Ehud 399, 404–7
Barbary states 29
Bashir II, Amir 130–1
Basra 178, 248, 375, 447, 464
Bayezid I 27, 35
Bechtel Corporation 244–5
Begin, Menachem 333, 336–40, 349, 352
Beirut 131, 187, 254, 347, 351, 360, 362
Belgium 83
Ben Gurion, David 261, 261–2, 287
Berlin, Congress of (1878) 84, 85, 89, 92
Berlin, Treaty of 85, 86
Bernedotte, Count Folke 267–8
Berytus (later Beirut) 8
Bevin, Ernest 256–7, 263–4
Bilad as-Sudan 58–9
Bin Abdelaziz, Abdullah 480–2
Bin Ali, Abdullah 140
Bin Ali, Ali 140
Bin Ali, Feisal 140
Bin Ali, Hussein 140, 147
Bin Laden, Usama 400, 424–5, 427, 428, 432–3, 434–5, 436–7, 440, 499
Bin Sultan, Bandar 440
birth rate 421
Bismarck, Otto von 84, 85, 92, 94, 95, 105
Black Saturday 273
Black September 345
Bremer, Paul 443–4, 445, 446–7, 449
Brest-Litovsk, Treaty of 190
Brezhnev, Leonid 329
Britain: maritime and commercial dominance 10, 41, 65; alliance against Napoleon 50, 51; war with Russia (1854–6) 75; and Persian Gulf 129, 136; as protector of the Druze 131; and Suez Canal 140, 215; declares war on Germany 152; captures Mohammereh 160; seizes Kharg Island 160; agreement with Russia (1907) 165–6; occupies part of Persia 167–8; occupies Egypt (1882) 170; land in Gallipoli 171; Arab policy 173; takes over Dardanelle Straits 190; and Palestine mandate 205, 207, 211, 230–8, 263, 265, 266; and Iraq mandate 207, 208, 211, 222–4; and Egyptian independence 213, 214, 216–18, 219, 256; Egypt’s importance as military base 221, 247; White Paper on Palestine (1939) 234, 261, 262–3; crisis with Farouk 250; and Iran 252–3, 281; Zionists turn against 261–2; decline in role in Middle East 263, 280, 315; fails in attempt at combined Middle Eastern command 272; Baghdad Pact 279; and Lavon affair 287; response to invasion of Kuwait 378; sanctuary for jihadi exiles 433–4
British Petroleum 167, 465
Bunche, Ralph 268
Burmah Oil Company 166
Bush, George 378, 382, 385, 396, 412, 419
Bush, George W. 395, 410–11, 439, 457, 461, 488, 491
Butler, Richard 391, 392
Byzantine Empire 13, 16, 22–3, 25, 26
Caesar, Julius 8
Cairo 1, 21–2, 26, 40, 108, 199, 206–7, 216, 251, 256, 260, 273, 340, 340–1
Caisse of Public Debt 101, 109–10, 113
Camp David agreements (1978) 338–9, 340, 405–8
Canan/Canaanites 3, 4
Capitulations 41, 75, 78–9, 88, 91, 97, 109, 113, 120, 127, 151, 196, 217
Carter, Jimmy 336, 338–9, 349, 370
Carthage 9
Catherine the Great Empress 38–9, 47, 75
Caucasus 170, 258
Chalabi, Ahmed 388
Chaldean Empire 5
Chamoun, Camille 292, 294, 295, 296
Chancellor, Sir John 232
Charles V, Emperor 30
Chehab, General Fuad 296
China National Petroleum Company 465–6
Christianity 2, 4, 10, 12
Christopher, Warren 399
Churchill, Winston 167, 184, 201–2, 205, 206–7, 213, 250, 253, 256, 260, 262, 272, 278
CIA (Central Intelligence Agency) 282, 294, 348
Clemenceau, Georges 205
Clinton, Hillary 509
Clinton, President Bill 389–90, 392, 393, 397–400, 403, 405
Cold War 256, 263, 272, 280, 282, 288, 293, 294, 317
Committee for the Defence of Legitimate Rights (CDLR) 453
Committee of Union and Progress (CUP) 141, 144, 145–53, 190
communications revolution 453–4
Compagnie Française des Petroles (CFP) 243
Concert of Europe 77
Congo (Zaire) 306
Constantine the Great 13
Constantinople 13, 16, 25, 27, 41, 178
Constantinople Conference (1876) 86
Corn Laws 90
Corrective Movement 329
Council of the Public Debt 90
Crane, Charles 204
Crassus 8
Crete 59, 61, 67, 81, 85, 248
Crimea 38–9, 75
Crimean War 160
Cromer, Lord 110–24, 126, 128, 183, 197, 216, 220
Crusades 23–5, 40–1
Ctesiphon 16
Curzon, Lord 163, 201, 222, 238, 242
Cyprus 59, 85, 183
Cyrus II ‘the Great’, King 5
Czechoslovakia 287
Damascus 3, 10, 17, 20, 26, 40, 47–8, 180, 205, 210, 226, 254, 271
D’Arcy, William Knox 166, 166–7
Dardanelles 61, 76, 152, 153, 171, 173, 178, 190, 191
Dayan, General Moshe 309, 333, 342–3, 343
Declaration of the Seven 188
Deutsche Bank 90, 242
al-Din, Prince Sabah 149–50
Disraeli, Benjamin 82, 84, 85, 100, 112
Doha agreement 459
Druze 22, 33, 40, 41, 62, 131, 154–5, 360, 457
Dubai 316, 480
Duelfer, Charles 392
Dufferin and Ava, Frederick, 1st Marquis of 109, 116
Dulles, John Foster 283, 289
East India Company 44, 51, 156
economy 419–23
Eden, Anthony 260, 272, 278, 288, 289
Edward VII, King 142
Egypt (main references) 475; empire in decline 5–6; as a Roman Colony 10; Persians occupy 13; invaded by Fatimids 21; Mamluke rule 26; Ottoman rule 33–4; and Suez Canal 48, 69, 98–101; strategic importance 48–9, 221, 247; and Napoleon 48–51; Britain invades 85; under British rule 95, 109; British occupation 170, 203, 213, 277; and Sudan 202–3, 217, 277; independence 213, 216–18; 1952 revolution 220; declares war on Germany 255; and League of Arab States 257; Sidky-Bevin agreement 257; and Protocol of Alexandria 261; Black Saturday 273; republic proclaimed (1953) 275; British leave (1956) 278; Israeli raid on Gaza 287; and Aswan dam 289; new Republican Constitution 291; economic blockade of 293, 294; dependence on US 306, 340, 341, 342; Israel attacks Egyptian airfields 309; Soviet arms to 310–11, 311; accepts Rogers Plan 311; peace with Israel 315; infitah policy 335; and Camp David agreements (1978) 338–9; isolation of 340; Treaty of Washington (1979) 340; and Iran-Iraq war 373; response to invasion of Kuwait 378; and Islamic fundamentalist threat 427–8, 429–30; and the communications revolution 454; and Gazan émigrés 472; elections, 2005 475–6; succession 501
Egyptian Federation of Industries 218
Eighth Army 251
Eisenhower, Dwight D. 282–3, 289, 290, 294, 306
Eisenhower Doctrine 294
&nbs
p; Ekeus, Rolf 391–2, 392
English Zionist Federation 183
Enlightenment 80
Entente Cordiale (1904) 113, 123
Enver Bey, Pasha Major 142, 143, 148, 150, 151, 152, 170
Eritrea 247
Ethiopia 216
Euphrates River 2
European Economic Community 320, 350, 373
European Investment Bank 422
Fahd, King of Saudi Arabia 323, 351, 378, 412, 436
Failaka, Kuwait 7
Fallujah 447, 454
Fanon, Frantz 363
Farouk, King 210, 216–21, 249, 257, 260, 267, 271, 273–4
Fatah 147, 313, 471–2, 490–1
Fath Ali, Shah of Persia 159, 160
Fatimid empire 21–2, 22–3
Feisal, Emir (King Feisal I of Iraq) 179–80, 187, 204–7, 223, 224, 258, 260
Feisal, Emir (King Feisal I of Saudi Arabia) 208, 210, 212, 295, 305, 312, 313, 321, 323, 346
Feisal, Crown Prince 292, 295
Feisal bin Turki 136
Fertile Crescent 2, 18, 135
Fez summit (1982) 352
Finkenstein, France-Prussian Treaty of (1807) 159
First World War 113, 126–7, 152–3. see also individual countries
FIS (Islamic Salvation Front) 429
Foreign Office 214, 220, 260
France/French: Arabs withdraw from 21; in Ottoman Empire 41; dispute with Russia over control of Palestine 75–6; war with Russia (1854–6) 75–6; and Algeria 95, 363; plans attack on British in India 159; and Maronites 177; and Sykes-Picot agreement 178; casualties in Europe 180; Lebanese mandate 205, 225, 253–4; Syrian mandate 205, 206, 225–6, 253–4, 293; and oil 242; fall of 248; alliance with Israel 287–8, 289; contingent attacked in Beirut 353; response to invasion of Kuwait 378
A History of the Middle East Page 61