Olmert, Ehud 467–8
Oman 29, 321, 373, 416, 508
Omar, Caliph 16
Omdurman 120
Operation Desert Fox 393
Operation Provide Comfort 388
Operation Southern Watch 388
Organization of African Unity 306
Organization of Islamic Conference (OIC) 312
Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) 319, 321, 326–8, 377, 421, 423
Oslo Accords 397–9, 400, 401, 402, 403, 405
Osman 26
Othman 16
Ottoman Administrative Decentralization Party 149
Ottoman Decentralization League 149–50
Ottoman Empire 26–39, 284; destruction of 1, 30–1, 221, 313, 362–3; domination of 21; and Yemen 29, 129; decline 30–1, 37–8, 38–9, 64, 83, 159; as Sick Man of Europe 31, 40, 75; preservation of 35–6; militarism 37; and Britain 41; French in 41, 94; and Greek Christians 59–60; and Anglo-Turkish treaty 64; war with Russia 75; Russia declares war on (1877) 83–4; development of heartland 91–2; modernization of 95; financial collapse of 100, 135; turns east 129–30, 135; rivalry with Persian Empire 130, 155; partitioning of 206; nation-states emerge from 363
Pacification of the Levant (1840) 67
Pahlavi, Mohammed Reza 252
Pakistan 285
Palestine 75–6, 178; and Philistines 4; and Aramaic 5; Egyptian Rule 8; Jewish community 9, 134, 181–2; Persians occupy 13; languages in 17; Seljuks take 22; and national home of the Jews 144; British mandate 205, 207, 211, 230–8, 263, 265, 266; Arab uprising against Jews 206; and Zionists’ aim 258, 260; proposals for future of 260–4; Anglo-American commission (1946) 263–4; partition of 265; Deir Yasin massacre 266; state of Israel declared in 266; Arab refugees in 268; percentage in Arab hands 268; idea of mini-state 346–7; and Oslo Accords 397–9, 402, 403, 407; and Camp David negotiations 405–8; war with Israel 408–12; Israel reoccupies 466; Israel withdrawal plans 466–7; settlements demolished 467; Israel invades 467–8; Israeli control 469–71; elections, 2006 470–2; governance 470–5; jihadism 477; Iranian patronage 491–2; economy 492; relations with US 499
Palestine Liberation Army 313
Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) 313, 397, 401–2; set up 304; and Front of Steadfastness 330; Israelis refuse to deal with 336; reconstructed 343; concentrates in Lebanon 345, 347, 349, 351; quasi-official status 346–7; Israeli stranglehold of Beirut HQ 351; HQ in Tunis 354, 355; and intifada 357; ‘two-state solution’ 358; and invasion of Kuwait 378; secret talks with Israel 397–9
Palestinian Authority 467, 470, 471–2, 507
Palestinian Legislative Council 471–2
Palestinian National Council 343, 347, 358
Palestinian National Covenant 343
Palmerston, Henry Temple, Viscount 61, 64–8
pan-Turanian movement 145, 146
Paris, Treaty of (1856) 76–7, 131
Paris peace conference 196, 198, 199, 203
Parthians 10
Patriotic Union of Kurdistan (PUK) 389, 390
Peel, Lord 233, 234, 237
Peres, Shimon 354, 359–60, 400, 402, 402–3
Permanent Mandate Commission 221, 231
Persia 1, 5–6, 13; and Seljuks 22; Ghengiz Khan seizes 25; Shah Ismail founds modern 28; Shiism flourishes in 154–5; renamed Iran 155, 240; Ottoman Turks invade 156; free trade with Russia 159; Russia declares war on 159; agrees to recognise Afghanistan 160; Constitutional Revolution 164–5; nationalists split 167; joins League of Nations 238; Anglo-Persian agreement (1919) 238–9; Soviet-Persian treaty (1921) 239, 252; and oil 239–41
Persian Empire 7, 13, 28–9, 130, 155–6, 157, 284
Persian Gulf 7, 129, 136, 152, 156, 169
Peter the Great, Tsar 38, 157, 158
Petroleum Concessions ltd 245
Petromas 466
Philip, King of Macedon 7
Philip ‘the Arab’ 11
Philistines 4
Phoenicians 4
Picot, Georges 178
PKK 387, 390, 495–6
Plan Dalet 266
Pompey 9–10
Popular Front (France) 227
popular movements, region-wide 451–5
population 421
Portugal 37, 44, 156
privatization 419–20
Protocol of Alexandria (1944) 261
Ptolemaic Egypt 8
Pyramids, battle of 49
Qaddafy, Muammar 312, 320, 411, 439, 454, 475, 494, 502, 503
Al-Qaeda 428, 433, 435, 437, 460–1, 462, 483
Qahtanis 7
Qajar dynasty 158
Qatar 245, 317, 318, 373, 416, 417, 481, 507, 519
Qunut 438
al-Qutb, Sayyid 425–6
Rabin, Yitzhak 397–400, 400, 401, 402, 408
Rafsanjani, Akbar Hashemi 485, 486
Rafsanjani Ali Akbar 376
Rahman, Abdul 148
Rahmi Bey 141
Rameses II ‘the Great’ 2
Rameses III 5
Rashidoun (Rightly Guided Ones) 16, 26
Reagan, Ronald 351–2
‘Red Line agreement’ 242, 243
regime change 498–505
Reshid Pasha, Mustafa 71, 73, 74, 79
Reuter, Julius de, Baron 163, 166
Revolutionary Command Council (RCC) 274–6, 291, 302, 323, 328
Reza Khan, Shah of Iran 239–41, 251–2, 285
Rice, Condoleezza 487
Rida, Rashid 139
Ritter, Scott 392
Riyadh 148
Rogers, William 311
Rogers Plan (1970) 311, 329
Roman Empire 4, 9–12
Roosevelt, Franklin D. 253, 260
Roosevelt, Theodore 124–5
Rosebury, Lord 119
Rosetta 54
Rothschild, House of 100
Rothschild, Lord 181, 185
Royal Dutch Shell 166, 242, 243, 466
Rushdie, Pasha 198, 199
Russia 50, 76, 382, 421; as protector of Orthodox Christians 41, 134; Ottoman Empire at war with 75; dispute with France over control 75–6; and Persian Gulf 136, 152; declares war on Persia 159; free trade with Persia 159; Bolshevik Revolution 191, 238, 283, 479; defeat in First World War 238; historic interest in Muslim World 283–5
Russo-Japanese War (1904–5) 165
Russo-Turkish wars 38–9
Sabah family 137
al-Sadat, Anwar 96, 220, 249, 274, 315, 328–31, 335–8, 341, 349, 350, 427
Saddam Hussein 315, 323, 324, 325, 359, 372, 375, 377–81, 384, 385–6, 387, 389–90, 391, 394–5, 430, 441, 442, 449, 466
al-Sadr, Imam Moussa 347
al-Sadr, Mohammed Baqir 445–6
Sadr, Muqtada 447
Safavid dynasty 28–9, 29, 36, 45, 155–6
Said (uncle of Abbas) 96–8, 98
al-Said, Nuri 224, 225, 248, 260, 261, 279, 292, 295, 305
Saladin 23, 25
Salafism 425, 462–4
Salisbury, Lord 94, 111, 120
Salonika 145–6
Samuel, Sir Herbert 184, 230
San Stefano, Treaty of 84
Sassanian Empire 13, 16
Saud, House of 147–9, 258, 259, 292–3, 365, 366, 502
al-Saud, Viceroy of Nejd 211
Saud King of Saudi Arabia 292–3, 294, 304
Saudi Arabia 178, 212; pilgrims to 212; war with Yemen 212; and oil 245, 316, 319, 321–3, 325, 332, 421, 422; and League of Arab States 257; hostility towards Hashemites 258, 260; and Soviet Union 285; joins Egypt and Syria in joint military command system 293; and OPEC 319, 322, 327; industrial development 322; as financial superpower 322–3; plan for creation of Palestinian state 350; alliance with the west 365–6; and Iran-Iraq war 373; and invasion of Kuwait 378; relations with US 393, 435–6; succession 418; birth rate 421; alliance with US 439–40; Sunnis in 441, 456, 461; regional identity 452; presence in Iraq 455; Shiites in 456; liberalization 481–3; Houth
i incursions 489–90; relations with Syria 500
Saudi Development Fund 322
Second World War. see under individual countries
Seleucid Empire 8, 11
Seleucus 8
Selim I ‘the Grim’ 28–9, 29, 33, 35, 36, 155
Selim III 47–8, 50, 52–3, 53, 57
Selim the Sot 35
Seljuks 22, 25, 154
Semites 6
September 11th 424, 438, 439, 482
Sèvres, Treaty of (1920) 190, 191
Shakespear, Captain W. H. I. 173–4
Shalamaneser III, King 5
Shamir, Yitzhak 358, 359, 396
Shapar I 13
al Shara, Farouq 396
Sharett, Moshe 287
Sharia law 14–15, 72, 116, 145–6, 194, 210, 364, 426
Sharon, Ariel 332, 408–9, 410, 411, 412, 426, 466–7
Sherif Pasha 102
Shihabs 62
Shiism: in Iran 17, 484; in Lebanon 17, 347, 349, 353, 360, 361; declared official religion of Persia 28; intermittent warfare with Sunnis 28–9, 155; autonomy 62; Abdul Hamid favours Sunnis over 144; historical and political differences from Sunnis 154–5; becomes foundation of Persian nationalism 155; religious hierarchy in Persia 161; in Iraq 223, 325, 374, 386–7, 387, 388, 444–7, 451, 455–6, 465, 488; and Iran’s Islamic Revolution 376; and Sunni regional domination 440–1; ascendancy in Iraq 444; Sunni/Shia civil war 451; expansion 453; non-state actors 455–60; proselytization programme 489
Shiite Ismaili movement 22
Shishakli, Colonel 293
Shukairy, Ahmed 304
Shuster, William 168
Sicily 21
Sidi Barrani 247
Sidky Pasha 215–16, 218, 256–7
Sidon 4
Sidqi, General Bakr 225
Sinai 121, 183, 217, 290, 329, 332, 334, 339
Sistani, Grand Ayatollah 446–7, 449, 455–6
Six-Day War 308–9, 312, 313, 315, 342
Snowcroft, Brent 387
Socony-Vacuum (later Mobil) 243
Soffer, Arnon 397
Sokolov, Nahum 183
Solod, Daniel 286
Solomon 4
South Korea 423
South Lebanon army 354
South Yemen 321, 338
Soviet Union. see also Russia: treaty with Persia 239, 252; in Second World War 249, 252, 252–3, 254; expansion of empire 263; and Zionist struggle in Palestine 265; recognizes state of Israel 266; Britain tries to keep out of eastern Mediterranean 272; and Baghdad Pact 279; and Iran 281; and Turkey 284; policy in Middle East 284–6; and Syria 293; against economic blockade of Egypt 310–11, 311; decline of influence in Middle East 315; and Kuwait 317; and Suez Canal 329; and Yom Kippur war 332, 332–3; US strategy ignores role in Middle East 352; invades Afghanistan 373; collapse of 382, 397
Spain 21
Sponeck, Hans von 390
Stalin, Joseph 253, 263, 284
Standard Oil 166, 213, 244, 245
Stephenson, James 97
Stern Gang 266
Sudan 96, 110, 111, 119–20, 202–3, 214, 215, 217, 247, 256–7, 277
Suez 278
Suez Canal 107, 109, 215, 242, 257, 331, 342, 489; survey for 50; building of 69, 98–101; British warships close 108; and Cromer 121; in First World War 127, 171, 172; and Ottoman Empire 129, 137; as British link to India 169; in Second World War 250; nationalization 289; as symbol of Western colonial domination 289; reopened (1957) 290, 334; and Israel 309, 311; US-sponsored cease-fire 312; closure of (1996–7) 320, 329; and Yom Kippur war 331
Suez Canal Company 98, 100, 124, 289
Suez crisis 289–90, 293, 318
Sulaiman the Magnificent 30, 32, 36, 38, 41
Sumerians 3
Sunnism 425, 449–51; statistics 17; intermittent warfare with Shiites 28–9; Ottoman sultans as leaders of 29–30, 46, 138, 140; autonomy 62; Shihabi amirs convert to become Maronites 130; Abdul Hamid favours 144; Turkish empire remains sole protector 144; historical and political differences from Shiites 154–5; religious hierarchy in Persia 161; in Iraq 223, 325, 441, 448–9, 465; in Syria 226, 331; in Lebanon 361; and Islamic Revolution 374; regional domination 440–1; world percentage of 441; revolt in Iraq 448–9; Sunni/Shia civil war 449–51; non-state actors 460–4
Supreme Council for Islamic Revolution in Iraq 446–7
Supreme Council of the Armed Forces 511
Supreme Islamic Iraqi Council 447
Sykes, Sir Mark 178, 184
Sykes-Picot agreement 178, 179, 181, 184, 187, 204, 242
Syria 16–17, 22, 34, 153, 330, 416–17, 452; Hittites take over 3; and Aramaic 5; Egyptian rule in 10, 134; Byzantium rules in 13; conquest of 16, 21; Druze in 22; and Mamlukes 25–6; and Muhammed Ali 62; industry 62–3; restored to Ottoman rule 67; Christians persecuted 134; and Sykes-Picot agreement 178; French mandate 205, 206, 207, 225–6, 293; focus of Arab nationalism 206; independence 227, 254–5; education 230; and League of Arab States 257; Feisal expelled from 258; attempt to intervene in Palestine 267; political instability 269; joins military command system 293; ties with Soviet Union 293; becomes part of UAR 295; emergence of Assad 315; closure of pipeline across Syrian territory 320; Sunnis in 331, 463, 476; antagonism to Iraq 338; and Front of Steadfastness 338; and Egyptian isolation 342; intervention in Lebanon 348, 351, 352, 353, 360, 362; US strategy ignores Syrian role in Middle East 352; supports Iran in Iraq-Iran war 373; response to invasion of Kuwait 378; and Israel 396, 399, 404–5; Shiites in 453; gumlukiyya 475; forced out of Lebanon 490; nuclear facility destroyed 493–4; relations with Saudi Arabia 500; civil war 518
Syrian Desert 2, 3
Taft, William 168
Taif accords (1989) 361–2, 451
Talaat Bey 141, 148, 150–1, 152
Taliban 433, 437, 438
Tallal, King of Jordan 270
Talleyrand-Périgord, Charles Maurice de, Prince of Benevento 48
Tamerlane 27
Tanzimat 71–3, 77, 81, 87, 90, 130, 134, 135, 138, 141, 162, 194
Tehran 165, 168, 239, 253, 455
Tel el-Kebir, battle of 108
television 453–4
terrorist attacks 460–1
Tewfik, Khedive (son of lsmail) 102–3, 104, 107, 108, 116, 119
Texas Company 244
Tigris River 2, 16
Torkaman, Treaty of (1828) 159
Total 466
tourism 423
Trans-Iranian Railway 240, 253
Transjordan 178, 207–12, 233, 235, 236–7, 257, 266, 269
Trucial Coast (later United Arab Emirates) 58, 318
Trucial States 245
Truman, Harry S. 263, 264, 282
Truman Doctrine (1947) 264, 281
Tunis 354, 355
Tunisia 85, 95, 129, 420, 476, 496–7
Turco-Circassians 103, 115
Turkestan 158, 160
Turkey/Turks 1, 414; and Islam 18, 195; Portuguese driven out of Bahrain and Muscat 44; bankruptcy 100; in First World War 127; loss of role in Europe 146–7; signs secret agreement with Germany 152; declares war on Allies (1914) 153; allies with Germany 168; and Sykes-Picot agreement 178; Arabs contribute to defeat of 179; armistice agreement 188; Kurds in 191, 495–6; democracy 195; accepts award of Mosul to Iraq 223; remains neutral in Second World War 227–8, 247; attacks Russia 238; maintenance of independence 264, 281; Baghdad Pact 279, 285; and NATO 279; and Soviet Union 284; relations with Egypt improve 328; nation-state forged 363; and US 383; and Kurds 390; and Israel 400; presence in Iraq 455; looks to Middle East 494–5; relations with Israel 496–7
turkification 146–7, 147
Umayyad family 17
unemployment 422
United Arab Emirates 373, 441, 453, 480
United Arab Military Command 304
United Arab Republic 295, 297
United Arab States 301
United Nations 254, 255, 375, 390; and Palestine 264–5, 265, 359; General Assembly 265, 268; Sec
urity Council 282, 309, 311, 349, 442, 443–4, 457, 494; Emergency Fund 290; Resolution 242 332, 335, 343, 358; Resolution 338 332, 335; Resolution 598 375; imposes sanctions against Iraq 377, 380; Resolution 687 385; Resolution 688 387
UN Emergency Force 309, 333–4
UN International Force in Lebanon (UNIFIL) 349, 491
United Nations Special Commission on Palestine (UNSCOP) 264
United States of America: in First World War 184–5; and mandates 207, 221; and Anglo-Persian agreement 239; ‘open-door’ policy 243, 245; in Second World War 249, 252–3, 253, 254; and Iran 253, 280, 282, 283, 321; Zionists make US their HQ 262; pressurizes Britain to allow Jewish immigration to Palestine 265; opposes forcible partition of Palestine 265–6; recognizes state of Israel 266; and Baghdad Pact 279; support for Israel 280, 283, 286, 315, 332, 336, 360; and Nasser 288; and economic blockade of Egypt 293; lands marines in Beirut after Iraq revolution 296; Egyptian dependence on 306, 340, 341; and Yom Kippur war 332; supervises Arafat’s evacuation 351; marines in Lebanon 352–3, 353; declares prepared for dialogue with PLO 358; and Iraq-Iran war 375; response to invasion of Kuwait 378, 379–80; deployment of troops in the Gulf 382–3; emergence of Pax Americana 382–95; attempt at neutering Iraq 383–93; and Arab-Israeli conflict 395, 397–400, 400; and Palestinian-Israeli conflict 410–11; declaration of war on by Islamic jihad 435, 435–6; relations with Saudi Arabia 435–6; war on Afghanistan 438; regime-change policy 439, 440; alliance with Saudi Arabia 439–40; Iraq Liberation Act 440; conquest of Iraq 441–4; reconstruction of Jordan 479; relations with Iran 487–8; influence 498–502; relations with Palestine 499; regimes in power 523–5
UNSCOM, weapons inspections in Iraq 384–5, 391–3
Urban II, Pope 23
Vance, Cyrus 336
Veiled Protectorate 117, 119, 121
velayat-e-faqih 371
Venice Declaration 350
Vichy government 248, 250, 253
Victoria, Queen 84, 84–5, 94
Vienna 27, 38
Wafd party 201, 202, 213–21, 250, 255, 256, 261, 271–2
Wahhab, Ibn Abdel 502
Wahhabis 46, 57, 137–8, 140, 148, 173, 206–10, 235, 365, 460, 481–3, 502
war on terror 438–40
Washington, Treaty of (1979) 340
Weizmann, Chaim 183, 185–6, 262
West Bank 207, 292, 309, 332, 338, 342, 346, 350, 358, 359, 466–7, 472, 474, 492
Western Desert 247–8, 249, 250
Wilhelm II 94–5
Wilson, Woodrow 188, 197, 198, 203–4
Wilson, Harold 318
Wingate, Sir Reginald 179–80
A History of the Middle East Page 63