German Federal Republic (West Germany), 337, 389
German Social Democratic Party: advocates central planning, 63; opposes communist ‘March Action’ in (1921), 126, 158–9; propaganda, 140; Comintern declares enmity for, 178; communists campaign against, 187
Germany: as threat to Imperial Russia, 1; trade with Russia, 3; imperial Russian rivalry with, 24–5; naval power, 25; and outbreak of World War I, 26–7, 34, 53; returns Lenin to Russia, 47; in World War I, 49, 107; and 1917/18 peace agreement with Russia, 75–8, 80; and October Revolution, 75; unrest in, 81; 1918 territorial acquisitions, 84; and civil war in Russia, 102; Spartakist rising (1919), 112; 1918 defeat, 117; Soviet negotiations and agreement with, 158–9; rise of Nazism, 171; Stalin’s estimate of, 187; nationalism, 206; signs Anti-Comintern Pact, 230; and outbreak of World War II, 255–7; imports Soviet strategic materials, 259; invades and campaigns in USSR (1941), 260–67; defence of homeland, 270–71; World War II atrocities, 283, 286, 288–9; occupation regime, 286–90, 295–6; Soviet collaborators with, 287; industrial plant transferred to USSR, 307; partition, 308; economic recovery, 322
Gestapo, 223, 286
Ghana, 389
Gierek, Eduard, 386
Gil, Stepan, 107
glasnost, 448–9, 452, 459–60, 464, 466
Glasnost (journal), 480
Glavlit (Main Administration for Affairs of Literature and Publishing Houses), 137, 324, 366, 448
Goethe, J.W. von, 85
gold, 4, 159, 177
Gomułka, Władisław, 231, 311, 342–3, 386
Gorbachëv, Mikhail: abolishes Glavlit, 137; Marxist-Leninism, 370; reform programme, 397, 438–44, 446, 448–52, 454–5, 459–62, 466, 468, 479, 485, 490, 494; experiments with ‘links’ system, 402; background and career, 404–5, 435–7, 456; Andropov employs, 430–31, 433, 437; status and influence, 434; appointed General Secretary, 435, 438; formulation of ideas, 437–8, 443, 451, 454–5; visits abroad, 437, 440, 463; political appointments, 438–9, 456; character and style, 439–40; foreign policy and international relations, 442–5, 451, 455, 463–5; and defence commitments, 443–4; negotiates with Reagan, 444, 463; and Chernobyl disaster, 445–6; and collapse of USSR, 447, 507; and public debate (glasnost), 448–9; relations with Yeltsin, 453, 503, 512; speech on 70th anniversary of October revolution, 453–4; foreign policy, 455, 463–5; and nationalities question, 455–7; at 19th Party Conference, 461–2; replaces Gromyko as Chairman of Supreme Soviet, 463; arms reduction, 465–6; popularity in West, 465–6, 496; innocence, 466; mismanagement, 468; and Armenian earthquake, 469; and economic crisis, 470–71, 491–3, 495; accepts 1989 election results, 473; resistance and opposition to reforms, 473–6, 480–81, 485, 488, 493–5; chairs Congress of People’s Deputies, 474–5; popularity in USSR, 477, 479; and independence movements in republics, 481; and collapse of communism in Eastern Europe, 483–4; contradictions in policy, 485–6; remains in Party, 486–7, 491; proposes socialist liberation, 487; at 18th Party Congress, 490–91; attempted coup against (1991), 491, 496–500, 502, 530; loses popularity, 491, 495–6, 499–500; maintains unity of USSR, 494; works with Yeltsin, 494; resignation, 495, 505, 507; Perestroika (book), 453–4, 465
Gorbachëva, Raisa, 436, 438, 453, 455–6, 469, 486, 498, 502
Gordov, General Vasili N., 299
Gorki (city), 412, 414
Gorki, Maksim, 137, 191, 206, 248
Gosagroprom see State Committee for the Agro-Industrial Complex
Gosizdat (state publisher), 138
Gosplan see State Planning Commission
Gottwald, Clement, 307
Grachëv, Pavel, 500, 524, 533
grain: pre-World War I production, 5; World War I regulation of trade, 31, 52, 79–80; production, 78–9, 124; state procurement of, 104, 109, 118, 164, 170, 172–4, 182–3, 194, 305; distribution, 108–9; hoarding by peasants, 109–10; and tax in kind, 124–5; fall in world prices, 147, 159, 177; marketing by peasants, 147; exports under NEP, 155; exports under First Five-Year Plan, 177; quotas, 184; post-World War II production, 328; production under Khrushchëv, 350; production under Brezhnev, 401; purchased abroad, 401; price controls lifted (1993), 525; see also harvests
Great Depression (1929), 170, 177
Great Terror (1937–8) see terror
Great War (1914–18) see World War I
Grebenshchikov, Boris, 543
Greece, 271, 306
Greek Catholic (Uniate) Church, 369
Grigoryants, Sergei, 480
Grishin, Viktor, 428, 434–5, 442
Groman, Vladimir, 145
Gromov, General Boris, 497
Gromyko, Andrei, 354, 404, 426, 428, 435, 438, 462–3
Grossman, Vasili, 289; Forever Flowing, 478; Life and Fate, 416
Group of Seven: Gorbachëv appeals to, 496
Grozny (Chechnya), 533, 538, 546
Guchkov, Alexander, 16, 30, 33, 36
Gulag (and forced labour), 179, 191, 210, 223–5, 252, 277, 279–80, 301, 328–9, 335, 342, 451–2; wartime deaths in, 278; Khrushchëv releases inmates, 345, 358–9, 370
Gusinski, Vladimir, 549, 550, 561
Gypsies, 222, 286
Habsburg dynasty, 26–8
harvests: 1917 shortage, 78–9; 1920 decline, 124; high 1926–7 level, 164; 1928–30 average, 181; 1936 fall, 218; low 1952 level, 304; 1954–55 improvements, 337–8; and Khrushchëv’s reforms, 337–8, 350, 352, 375, 385; 1963 low level, 375; 1964 improvement, 385
Havel, Vacláv, 483
health and medical care, 417–18
Helsinki Final Act (1975), 400, 413
Herzegovina: Austria annexes (1908), 24
Herzen, Alexander, 17
Hindenburg, Field Marshal Paul von Beneckendorff und von, 75
historiography of Russia since 1900: xxv–xxxii
history: writing of official Soviet, 206, 316, 368, 419, 479
Hitler, Adolf: Comintern disregards, 178; Stalin misjudges, 187; and ‘Final Solution’, 202, 222–3; rise to power, 206; occupies Rhineland, 230; annexes Austria and Sudetenland, 231; totalitarianism, 253; and outbreak of World War II, 255–6; and pact with USSR (1939), 256; and invasion of USSR, 259, 265–6, 573; and campaign in USSR, 262, 266–7; death, 272, 293; mistrusts Volga Germans, 277; and Soviet popular resistance, 286; and German atrocities in Russia, 288, 290; see also Germany; Nazi party
Hohenzollern dynasty, 26
Holland: Germans occupy, 258
homelessness, 517–18; see also housing
Honecker, Erich, 464, 483
honours and awards, 236–7
housing, 192, 357, 359, 418, 517–18
Hrushevskyi, Mihaylo, 132
Human Rights Committee, 382
Hungary: 1919 Soviet Republic, 120; post-World War II settlement, 271, 307; supplies contingents for German army, 286; and formation of Cominform, 308; unrest in, 336; 1956 rising and suppression, 343–4, 353, 387, 443, 454; reforms under Ka´da´r, 385–6; and Gorbachëv’s reforms, 464; allows East German immigration and transit, 483; joins NATO, 537
Husák, Gustáv, 387, 464, 483
hydrogen bomb, 336, 353; see also nuclear weapons
identity booklets (‘internal passports’), 207–8
ideological authoritarianism, 99, 117
Ignatov, Nikolai, 377
illiteracy see literacy
IMF, 531, 535
Imperial Academy, 8
Imperial Economic Society, 7
imperialism, 128–9
India, 129, 388, 538
‘Industrial Party’, 185
industrial relations see strikes
industry and industrialization: and military strength, 3–4; pre-World War I development, 4–5, 7, 22; labour, 7; growth in World War I, 28–9, 31; Bolshevik policy on, 79–80; World War I production fall, 79; nationalization of, 92, 95, 110; Lenin proposes capitalist syndicates for, 95; post-World War I production decline, 109, 124; small-scale manufacturing under NEP, 126–7; Trotski’s plans for, 151; recovery unde
r NEP, 155, 162, 186; planning campaigns, 160; under Stalin, 175–6, 194, 234, 275–6; under Five-Year Plans, 182, 186, 194; Stakhanovism in, 217; in World War II, 266; regional policy, 302; capital goods, 303–4, 329; Khrushchëv’s policy on, 351; production increases under Brezhnev, 385; capacity (1970s), 397–8; 1979 reforms, 408; statistics on (1966–80), 408; Gorbachëv’s proposed reforms, 440–41; inefficiency, 467–8; increased output (1983–7), 469; production falls under Yeltsin, 516; privatization, 531, 534, 541–2; see also consumer goods
inflation: in World War I, 28, 52, 55, 79; under Gorbachëv, 496; under Yeltsin, 516, 529; see also prices
‘informals’ (neformaly), 476
Ingushi, 367
Institute of the Economy of the World Economic System, 450
Institute of Red Professors, 142, 173
intelligentsia: in imperial Russia, 11; support for Bolsheviks, 94–5; repressed and controlled by Bolsheviks, 137–9, 200–201, 245; and Stalin’s scholarly pretensions, 319; and Khrushchëv’s policies, 364, 366; and Brezhnev, 380–82, 387–8; and Gorbachëv’s glasnost, 449–50; see also dissenters
Intermediate Nuclear Forces Treaty (1987), 465
International, Communist see Comintern
International, Second, 25
International, Socialist, 62
International Monetary Fund see IMF
Internationale (anthem), 282
Inter-Regional Group, 475–6
Iov, Archbishop of Kazan, 370
Iran, 258, 308, 312, 556
Iraq, 555
iron, 4, 78
Islam see Muslims
Israel, 317, 343
Italy: unrest in, 120; fascist methods in, 140; Mussolini seizes power, 171; communist party follows Moscow line, 295, 306, 311; and conference on Cominform, 308; communist party abandons Moscow, 398
Ivan IV, Tsar (‘the Terrible’), 206, 226, 319
Ivanovo, 73
Ivashko, Vladimir, 481, 490, 496
Izvestiya (newspaper), 133, 191, 194, 348
Japan: 1904–5 war with Russia, 3, 14; Imperial Russian disputes with, 24; and Russian civil war, 102, 312; signs Anti-Comintern Pact, 230; aggression against USSR, 231, 255, 257; and threat of World War II, 255; in World War II, 268, 270, 272; surrenders (1945), 273; post-war rehabilitation, 308; economic recovery, 322
Jaruzelski, General Wojciech, 411
jazz, 365
Jewish Autonomous Region, 317, 325
Jews: Russian nationalists’ hatred of, 12; in Pale of Settlement, 13; and anti-Semitism, 116, 201, 365, 416, 423, 458; Nazi extermination of, 222, 286; in October Revolution, 250; persecuted, 316–17; Stalin’s antipathy to, 324–5, 416; allowed to emigrate, 400; and dissenters, 414; after communism, 540, 557
Kádár, János, 343, 385, 387, 464
Kadets (Constitutional-Democratic Party): established, 14; decamp at dissolution of 1st Duma, 15–16; denounce Nicholas II’s autocracy, 15; agrarian reform policy, 20; and beginning of World War II, 25; and Nicholas II’s abdication, 33; in Provisional Government, 34–6, 45; oppose division of state, 45; walk out of cabinet (1917), 49; reject Kerenski’s overtures, 51; in Kerenski’s 3rd coalition, 57–8; suppressed by Bolsheviks, 93, 107; White commanders disdain, 116; excluded from politics, 161
Kafelnikov, Y., 539
Kaganovich, Lazar: follows Stalin’s policies, 171; Stalin attacks, 195; and rebuilding of Moscow, 204–5; and Party power, 211–15, 303; on Politburo commission, 220; and Stalin’s Party purges, 221 ; supports Stalin, 241, 252; shaves off beard, 246; opposes reform after Stalin’s death, 332; relations with Malenkov, 337; dismissed and posted to Sverdlovsk, 344–5; recommends Khrushchëv to Stalin, 348; reviled at 22nd Party Congress, 360; retirement, 477
Kaganovich, Moisei, 243
Kalinin, Mikhail, 142, 219
Kaliningrad (formerly Königsberg), 306
‘Kalinka’ (song), 530
Kalmyks, 367
Kamenev, Lev: favours co-operation with Mensheviks, 47; imprisoned (1917), 50; opposes Lenin’s plan to seize power, 60; relations with Lenin, 72; scepticism over Bolsheviks’ continuing support, 81 Jewishness, 85, 201; administrative agreement with colleagues, 110; in Politburo, 112, 151, 160; supports NEP, 125; Lenin criticizes, 152; disagreements with Lenin, 153; edits Lenin’s works, 154; and succession to Lenin, 154–5, 157–8; attacks Trotski, 156; in United Opposition, 160–61, 164; suppressed, 161; expelled from Party and re-admitted, 162, 188; tried and sentenced, 215–16; shot, 218
Kapitsa, Pëtr, 247, 573
Kaplan, Fanya, 107
Karachai, 367
Karaganda, 364, 472
Karelia: demands recognition of independence, 490, 521
Karlovy Vary (Czechoslovakia), 320
Kasparov, Garry, 557, 559
Kasyanov, Mikhail, 551, 569
Kataev, Valentin, 248
Katushev, Konstantin, 404
Kazakhstan: nationalism, 131, 391; population victimized, 201–2; Soviet Republic formed, 207; deportees settled in, 225, 276, 300, 368; Khrushchëv advocates agricultural development, 332, 338, 351–2, 379; party leadership replaced, 338; effects of nuclear testing in, 359; nationalist resurgence, 456, 458; scandals in, 456; Russians in, 458, 520; strikes, 472; non-cooperation with State Committee for the Emergency Situation, 503; joins Commonwealth of Independent States, 506
Kazan, 106
Kemerovo (Kuzbass), 472
Kemerovo coal-mine, 218
Kennedy, John F., 353–4, 374
Kerenski, Alexander: co-operation with other parties, 30 ; in Provisional Government, 33, 36, 49; heads Provisional Government, 50–54, 57; loses army support, 54; and social disruption, 56; in Pre-Parliament, 58; and Lenin’s bid for power, 59; and government collapse, 60; overthrown in October Revolution, 62, 67; escapes from Winter Palace, 65; in newsreels, 73; and promised elections, 74 KGB (Committee of State Security): and Cheka, 69; formed, 334; and Khrushchëv’s speech against Stalin, 341; unmentioned in Khrushchëv’s programme, 361, 363; Russians dominate, 367; and Orthodox Church, 369; repressive methods and acts, 382, 412, 414, 420; reports on popular opinion, 418; relaxes under Gorbachëv, 480
Khakamada, Irina, 553
Khalkhin-Gol, 255, 267
Kharitonov, Nikolai, 553
Kharkov, 73, 266–7
Khasan, Lake, battle of (1938), 231, 255
Khasbulatov, Ruslan, 495, 500, 512, 515–16, 521–5
Khataevich, M.M., 237
Khlysty (religious sect), 10
Khlystun, Oleg, 534
Khodorkovski, Mikhail, 550, 561
Khrennikov, Tikhon, 319
Khrushchëv, Nikita: supporters, 199, 450; and Great Terror, 223, 340, 348; Stalin admits trusting nobody to, 232; Stalin promotes, 241–2; on impending World War II, 259; on Stalin’s behaviour in World War II, 263–4; Stalin humiliates, 265; reforms, 293, 355–60, 372–3, 409; and agricultural reforms, 302, 320, 347, 349–51, 401–2; position and status, 303; and Stalin’s xenophobia, 316; on need for ‘vigilance’, 326; offices and policies after Stalin’s death, 332–3, 335–8, 346–7; in plot against Beria, 333–5; conflict with Malenkov, 335–7; denounces Stalin at 20th Party Congress, 338–42, 344, 360, 436; and Hungarian rising, 343–4; criticized, 344; prevails over opponents, 344–5; administration, 346–7, 349–55, 550; behaviour, 346, 349; personal publicity, 347–8; background and career, 348, 555; foreign policy, 352–4, 373–4, 399; overseas visits, 353, 376; achievements, 354–7, 375; programme of communism, 356, 360–63, 372, 405–6; and arts, 364–6, 416; anti-religion campaign, 369–70; antagonizes officials, 370–71, 375; enjoys luxuries, 371; repressive measures, 371–2; Party hostility to, 372–3, 375; and building of Berlin Wall, 373–4; and Cuban missile crisis, 374–5; contradictions and eccentricities, 375, 392; conspiracy against and ousting, 376–8, 385; in retirement, 388; in Brezhnev’s memoirs,
404; and dissenters,
413; promotes Andropov,
429; and public debate, 448
Kichko, T.: J
udaism without Veneer, 423
Kiel naval garrison, 81
Kiev, 40, 49, 75, 120, 261, 264, 296, 364, 367
Kim Il-Sung, 312
Kirgiz (Kazakh) Republic: formed, 115
Kirienko, Sergei, 530, 535
Kirov, Sergei, 160, 213–15, 217, 340
Kissinger, Henry, 399
Klebanov, Vladimir, 414
Klub Perestroika, 476
Knorin, V.G. and others: The History of the All-Union Communist Party: A Short Course, 237–8, 249
Kolbin, Gennadi, 456
Kolchak, Admiral Alexander V., 102, 106, 112–13, 116–17
kolkhozes (collective farms), 183; markets, 194; members refused passports, 208; conditions, 224, 421, 440, 540; and work-force, 243; private plots, 284; under German occupation, 288; rumours of disbandment, 298; wages, 304–5, 328; Khrushchëv’s policy on, 349–51, 358–9, 401; Brezhnev and, 401; run at loss, 402; and family contracts, 470; unpaid under Yeltsin, 516; government credit for, 526; resistance to privatization, 542; see also collectivization; peasants
Kollontai, Alexandra, 50
Kolpino, 97
Kolyma, 179, 329
Komar, Dmitri, 501
kombedy see committees of village poor
Komi, 521
Kommunist (journal), 511
Komsomol (communist youth organization), 140, 171, 199, 361, 538
Komuch see Constituent Assembly: Committee of Members
Kondratev, Nikolai, 145
Konev, General Ivan, 263, 265 , 272
Königsberg see Kaliningrad
Korean war (1950–53), 312, 330, 336
Koreans: deported, 225
Kornilov, General Lavr, 52, 54–7, 60, 82, 88, 102, 113
Korotich, Vitali, 449
Korzhakov, Alex, 531, 532
Kosior, Stanislav, 170
Kosmodeyanskaya, Zoya, 289
Kosovo, 537, 562
Kostov, Trajcho, 311
Kosygin, Aleksei: career, 236, 373, 378; advocates reform, 379–80, 385, 407, 431; relations with Brezhnev, 384; hesitates over Czechoslovak intervention, 387; overseas visits, 388; resignation and death (1980), 403
Kovalëv, Sergei, 519
Kozlov, Frol, 344–5, 364, 373
Kozyrev, Andrei, 512, 536, 537
Krasin, Lev, 70
The Penguin History of Modern Russia Page 77