Krasin, Viktor, 412
Krasnov, General P.N., 67
Krasnoyarsk, 329
Krasnoyarsk Regional Committee, 221
Kravchenko, Viktor, 234
Kravchuk, Leonid, 506
Krestinski, Nikolai, 112
Krichevski, Ilya, 501
Kronstadt, 50, 58, 119, 125, 127, 446
Krupskaya, Nadezhda (Lenin’s wife), 152–3, 195, 227
Kryuchkov, Colonel-General Vladimir A., 496, 499–502
Ksenofontov, F.A., 158
Kuban region, 195
Kühlmann, Richard von, 76
Kuibyshev see Samara
Kuibyshev, Valeryan, 171, 175, 213, 218
Kukly (TV programme), 538, 549
kulaks: status, 6; rejoin communes, 86; Lenin advocates hanging, 108; Lenin proposes rewarding, 121; persecuted, 171, 179–81, 195, 202–3; grain seized, 174; enfranchised under 1936 Constitution, 239; post-World War II demands, 298; see also peasants
Kulichenko, Aleksei, 208
Kunaev, Dinmukhammed, 391, 403, 456
Kurchatov, Sergei, 304
Kurds: deported, 225
Kurile Islands, 273, 308
Kursk, 267, 269, 289
Kursk (submarine), 549
Kutuzov, Mikhail, 134
Kuznetsov, Admiral N.G., 258
labour: agricultural, 7; industrial, 7, 178; movement, 13, 21, 29, 32, 37, 143–4, 540; and administrators, 97, 417; discipline, 243, 416, 469, 516; shortage of skilled, 243; in World War II, 285–6; mobility, 416–17; promotion prospects reduced, 422; unpaid under Yeltsin, 516; see also wages
Labour Party (British), 63, 178
Labytnangi, 329
land: peasant tenure, 5–6, 22, 34, 39–41, 55–6; and gentry, 15–16, 20, 34, 39, 53, 55–6; reform demands in 1906 Duma, 15; redistribution after October Revolution, 67–8, 82, 86–7, 90–1; socialization, 82; privatization delayed, 526, 542, 551
Land Code, 551
Land, Decree on (Lenin’s), 68, 73–4, 85, 87, 90
Land and Freedom (party), 17–19
Landau, Lev, 248
Landowners Union, 88
languages: diversity of, 9–10, 130; see also linguistics; Russian language
Larionov, A.M., 349
Latsis, Martyn, 108
Latvia: demands autonomy, 40; support for Bolsheviks, 83; Germany acquires (1918), 84; soldiers (Riflemen),
87, 103; Soviet republic established (1918), 107; granted independence, 128; awarded to USSR in 1939 Non-Aggression Treaty, 256–7; annexed by USSR, 258, 306, 398; Germans occupy, 261; post-World War II settlement, 270, 306; SS units from, 287; post-World War II deportations, 300; culture downgraded, 316; and Khrushchëv’s denunciation of Stalin, 342; nationalism, 366, 456, 478; Communist Party purged, 367; protest demonstrations, 457, 473–4, 481; independence movement, 482; Yeltsin reassures, 489; resists State Committee for the Emergency Situation, 502; demands independence, 503; declines to join Commonwealth of Independent States, 507
Latvian Popular Front, 482
Lavrov, Sergei, 560
Law on Co-operatives, 451, 460–61
lawlessness see criminality and criminal gangs
Laz people, 131–2
Lazar, Berel, 557
Lazurkina, D.A., 360
League of the Militant Godless, 136, 204
League of Nations, 229
Lebed, Alexander, 532, 533
Left Opposition, 156–7, 161, 164
Left Socialist-Revolutionaries, Party of, 59, 74, 76, 78, 81, 89, 93, 102–4, 107, 110
leisure and recreation, 191, 357, 420–21; see also sport
Lenin, Vladimir I.: leads Bolsheviks, 19, 71–2, 74; 1917 return to Russia, 26, 47; advocates immediate Bolshevik seizure of power, 47–50, 58–60; in hiding in Finland, 50; and socialist proposals to end war, 52; accuses Kerenski, 55; negotiates 1917/18 peace, 62, 68, 75–8, 102; and October Revolution, 62, 65–7; advocates dictatorship, 63–4, 549; revolutionary ideas and aims, 63–5, 82–3, 91–2, 98, 548; forms 1917 government, 66–7; issues decrees, 68–9, 73; Allies’ view of, 70; background and reputation, 70–73, 553; character, 72, 74; economic difficulties, 79–80; expects continuing support, 81; proposes federation of Soviet republics, 84; ethnic origins, 85; and Latvian Riflemen, 87; and workers’ control, 88; language, 92; personality cult, 93, 199, 551; and state capitalism, 96; and state administrative organization, 98–9; and civil war, 101, 104, 106; and murder of Mirbach, 103; advocates terror, 107–8, 145, 227; and Allied victory over Germany, 107; assassination attempt on, 107–8; administrative agreement with colleagues, 110; and central Party administration, 111–12; economic policies, 111; chairs Politburo, 112; introduces federal rule, 114; and regions, 115; and Party purges, 118; favours requisitioning of foodstuffs, 120; favours foreign concessions, 121, 125–6, 159; on rewarding kulaks, 121; and Trotski’s union proposals, 122; and peasant unrest, 124; introduces NEP, 125–7, 150–51; attacked at 10th Party Conference, 127; and republics and nationalities, 129–30 132–3; health decline, 132, 151–3; religious persecution, 135; criticizes Mayakovski, 137; Gorki criticizes, 138 and Civil Code, 145; political testament, 152, 157, 174; death and preservation, 153–4; succession to, 154–5, 157–8, 197, 376; and Stalin’s use of terror, 227; on withering away of state, 239; on overthrow of capitalism, 254; Stalin praises at 19th Party Congress, 326; Khrushchëv proposes return to, 341–2; on co-existence with global capitalism, 352; Western disenchantment with, 398; on literary classics, 419; writings, 419–20, 479; and public debate, 448; Gorbachëv praises, 454; on class struggle, 455; Soloukhin analyses, 479; and Gorbachëv’s reforms, 487–8; denounces politicking, 522; and Russian dominance, 554; April Theses, 47–8; Proletarian Revolution and the Renegade K. Kautsky, 108; The State and Revolution, 58, 63, 98, 361; ‘Theses on a Separate and Annexationist Peace’, 76; What Is To Be Done?, 19, 71, 143
Lenin Collection, 154
Leninakan: 1988 earthquake, 468
Leningrad see St Petersburg
Leningrad Opposition, 160–61
Leningrad State University, 548
Liberal-Democratic Party, 520, 522, 527–8, 532
liberals, 13–14, 18, 48–9
Liberman, Yevsei, 372, 379
life expectancy, 518
Lifshits, Yevgeni, 248
Ligachëv, Yegor: Andropov promotes, 430–31; supports Gorbachëv, 435; Gorbachëv promotes, 438; background and career, 439; undermines Gorbachëv, 452–3, 458, 460, 476; and Russian nationalism, 458; at 19th Party Conference, 461; and Yeltsin, 462, 503; disbelieves in reform, 468; taunts Yeltsin over rationing, 470; loses offices, 489, 490, 521
linguistics: Stalin’s views on, 318–19, 322
lishentsy see ‘deprived ones’
literacy: pre-1914 rates, 6; Bolsheviks increase, 140–41, 190, 205
literature and writers, 139, 248, 324, 335, 344, 365–6, 414–15, 476–7; see also samizdat
Lithuania: protest demonstrations, 57, 473, 481; Germany acquires (1918), 84; Soviet republic established (1918), 107; independence, 128; awarded to Germany in 1939 Non-Aggression Treaty, 256–7; annexed by USSR, 258, 306, 398; Germans occupy, 261; post-World War II settlement, 270, 306; SS units from, 287; post-World War II deportations, 300; culture downgraded, 316; and Khrushchëv’s denunciation of Stalin, 342; nationalism, 366, 456, 473, 478; overrules Soviet legislation, 474; independence demands, 482, 503; Yeltsin reassures, 489; Soviet forces repress (1991), 494; resists State Committee for the Emergency Situation, 502; declines to join Commonwealth of Independent States, 507
Litvinenko, Alexander, 557
Litvinov, Maksim, 254, 256
Litvinov, Pavel, 387
livestock: killed by peasants, 181
living standards: among peasants, 147; under communism, 192–3; under Gorbachëv, 469–70; changes under Yeltsin, 517–19, 525, 534, 541–2, 553–4
lobbying organizations, 514–15
Lobov, Oleg, 512
Lominadze, Beso, 187
Ludendorff, General Erich, 75, 78
Lukyanov, Anatoli, 499, 502, 511
Lunacharski, Anatoli, 94
Luzhkov, Yuri, 540, 547
Lvov, Prince Georgi, 29–30, 33, 35–6, 49–50, 60, 80
Lysenko, Timofei, 247, 318
McCartney, Paul, 477
machine-tool industry, 468
machine-tractor stations, 181–2
Macmillan, Harold, 349, 397
magnitizdat (cassette publishing), 380
Magnitogorsk, 191, 199
Main Administration for Affairs of Literature and Publishing Houses see Glavlit
Makashov, Albert, 524
Malenkov, Georgi: Stalin promotes, 241; submits to Stalin, 252; and conduct of World War II, 262; post-World War II policies, 302; position and status, 303; and Cominform, 308; at 19th Party Congress, 325–6, 328; favours light-industrial investment, 326; and Stalin’s death, 327; offices and policies after Stalin’s death, 331–3, 337–8; and Beria’s arrest, 334; advocates consumer-goods production, 335, 347, 379; conflict with Khrushchëv, 335–7, 348; and supplies to Ukraine in World War II, 339; and 20th Party Congress, 341; mission to Hungary, 343; dismissed and posted to Kazakhstan, 344, 345; seeks better relations with USA, 352; reviled at 22nd Party Congress, 360 malnutrition see food supply managers: courted by Bolsheviks, 95; protected, 194 ; and labour discipline, 243–4; discontent, 329; and Kosygin’s reforms, 379; opportunities reduced, 422; and Yeltsin’s reforms, 514–15; see also administrators
Manchuria, 255, 257, 273
Mandelshtam, Osip, 139, 248
Manuilski, Dmitri, 161
Mao Zedong, 311–12, 354, 378, 388
‘market, the’: under NEP, 144–5; under Stalin, 194–5, 244; under Yeltsin, 509, 512–15, 534, 535, 547; and criminal gangs, 512–13; and capitalism, 514
Marshall, George: European aid plan, 308, 310
Martov, Yuri, 59, 66
Marx, Karl, 92–3, 136, 317; Das Capital, 70
Marxism: organizations formed (1890s), 18; intellectual appeal, 19–20; dissemination of, 92, 136; as religion, 136; and withering away of state, 240
Marxism-Leninism: term adopted, 154; development of, 169; and Bukharin’s Right Deviation, 176; and Russian nationalism, 205, 207; and local party committees, 216; explained in A Short Course, 237–8; and administrators, 242; and cultural expression, 249, 281, 319; and post war young rebels, 299; and science, 318–19; absolutism, 324; and collective leadership, 332; Khrushchëv promotes, 356; and non-Christian faiths, 370; lacks popular support, 418; Andropov’s belief in, 429–30; Yeltsin on discrediting of, 512
mass communication, 92–3, 191, 200, 358
Mayakovski, Vladimir, 137–9
Mazowiecki, Tadeusz, 483
Mazurov, K.T., 403
Medvedev, Dmitri, 559–62
Medvedev, Roy, 298, 366, 381, 412–14, 433, 449, 511
Medvedev, Vadim, 462, 486, 493
Medvedev, Zhores, 412, 445
Meir, Golda, 316
Mekhlis, Lev, 265
Melnikov, Vladimir, 487
Mendeleev, Dmitri Ivanovich, 8
Menshevik Party: rivalry and differences with Bolsheviks, 19–20, 63, 66, 104; repressed under Nicholas II, 29; and Provisional Government, 35; constitutional aims, 45–6; disaffected Bolsheviks join, 48; seeks end to World War I, 51–2; Kerenski seeks support from, 53; wins over army, 54; Lenin disavows, 59, 118; anti-capitalism, 62–3; and October Revolution, 65; non-cooperation in Lenin’s 1917 government, 66–7; formed, 71; excluded from Sovnarkom, 74; repressed by Bolsheviks, 93, 185; excluded from soviets, 107; Lenin proposes trials of, 128; denounced, 134; excluded from politics, 161; and opposition to Bolshevik Party, 188
mental illness, 417
Mercader, Ramon, 231
Meshcherski, V.P., 96
Meshketian Turks, 367–8, 481
Mid-Volga Regional Committee, 186
middle class: 1917 representative bodies, 39; in Bolshevik leadership, 49; demoralized by reforms, 88; terror used against, 108; in administration, 145; and private trade, 145; after communism, 553; see also bourgeoisie
‘middle-peasantization’, 90–91
Mikhail, Grand Duke, 33
Mikhelson Factory, Moscow, 107
Mikhoels, Solomon, 316
Mikoyan, Anastas: and grain procurement, 170; dissents at 17th Party Congress, 213; submits to Stalin, 219; supports Stalin, 241; visits Stalin on German invasion, 261; favours light-industrial production, 302; Stalin accuses of political cowardice, 327; position after Stalin’s death, 331; and plot against Beria, 333; denounces Stalin at 20th Party Congress, 338; visits Hungary, 343; and Novocherkassk unrest, 364; and plot to depose Khrushchëv, 376–7
Military Opposition, 112
Milosevic´ Slobodan, 537
Milyukov, Pavel Nikolaevich, 27, 30, 33–4, 36, 45, 82
miners, 514–15
Mingrelian people, 325, 339
Ministry of Economics (Russian Federation), 535
Ministry of External Affairs (Russian Federation), 537
Ministry of Internal Affairs (MVD), 332–4; see also: NKVD
minorities see nationalities and minorities
Minsk, 296, 457
Mirbach, Count Wilhelm, 103
mitingovanie (neologism), 38
Mladenov, Petar, 463–4
modernization, 192
Mogilëv, 27, 30, 33
Moldavia: deportations from, 258, 300; Romanians in, 284; famine, 304; culture downgraded, 316; repressed under Khrushchëv, 369; Brezhnev in, 383; nationalism in, 474
Moldova: resists State Committee for the Emergency Situation, 502; joins Commonwealth of Independent States, 506; see also Moldavia
Molotov, Vyacheslav M.: and Lenin’s health decline, 151; supports Stalin, 171, 175, 241; as Moscow Party Committee secretary, 176; and compulsory collectivization, 179; hard line on Party power, 213–14; and Stalin’s use of terror, 216, 221, 223; on Politburo commission, 220; medal, 236; on 1936 Constitution, 240; submits to Stalin, 252; and Nazi pact (1939), 256; and Soviet bases in Baltic states, 257; discounts German attack on USSR, 258; speech on German invasion, 261; and conduct of World War II, 262; favours concentrating industry in European areas, 302; position and status, 303; wife’s persecution, 316, 325; visits Eisenstein with Stalin, 319; Stalin accuses of political cowardice, 327; and Stalin’s death, 327; position after Stalin’s death, 331–2; opposes reform, 332; foreign policy, 337; relations with Malenkov, 337; and 20th Party Congress, 338, 341; dismissed after conflict with Khrushchëv, 344; appointed to Mongolia, 345; reviled at 22nd Party Congress, 360; retirement, 477
monarchy, 7, 18–19, 32, 45–6; see also Nicholas II, Tsar
Montgomery, Field Marshal Bernard Law, 1st Viscount, 272
Morocco, 24
Morozov, Pavlik, 245
Moscow: 1905 uprising, 15; capital moved to (1918), 78; underground railway (Metro), 192, 199, 247; rebuilding, 204, 323, 351; in World War II, 261–2; octocentenary celebrations (1948), 323; unrest under Gorbachëv, 494; ‘White House’ (RSFSR Supreme Soviet building), 500–502, 524
Moscow News (journal), 449
Moskalenko, Marshal Kiril S., 333, 372
Moslems see Muslims
Mozambique, 399
Mukden: Russian defeat (1905), 14
‘multipolarity’, 554
Murakhovski, Vsevolod, 440
Murmansk, 102
Muslims : in central Asia,
84; and nationalism, 131; Turkey and, 133; Bolshevik tolerance of, 135; clerics persecuted, 203–4; and Khrushchëv’s repression, 369–70
Musorgski, Modest, 11
Mussolini, Benito, 140, 171, 235, 293
Mzhavanadze, V.P., 391
Nagorny Karabakh, 133, 424, 457, 469
Nagy, Imre, 343
Nakhichevan, 133
Napoleonic Wars, 1, 10, 134
Narkomnats
see People’s Commissariat of Nationa
lities narodniki (populists), 17–19
Nashi, 557
Nasser, Gamal Abdel, 352, 389
nationalism (non-Russian), 40, 83–5, 113–14, 130–32, 200–202, 208, 366–9, 390–91, 423, 456–8, 478, 481, 513
nationalism (Russian),
11–12, 23, 46, 115, 129–30, 134, 200–202, 205–8, 235, 246–7, 314, 390, 478, 480, 497, 536, 560–1
‘national programmes’ (Putin and Medvedev), 558
nationalities and minorities: under revolutionary government, 69; Soviet treatment of, 132–4; identification of, 207–8; deportations, 276–7, 284, 300, 329, 339, 367; in World War II,
283–4; cultures downgraded,
316; Khrushchëv on,
362–3; and birth rate,
422–3; growing dominance,
424; Gorbachëv on,
455–6; protest demonstrations,
457–8nationalization
see state economic ownership
NATO
see North Atlantic Treaty Organization
Nature (London journal), 416
navy: pre-revolutionary discontent in, 37–8; forms revolutionary committees, 56; sailors granted direct action, 69; demobilization, 86; unrest, 119, 122; Kronstadt mutiny (1921), 125, 127
Nazarchuk, Alexander, 534
Nazi party, 171, 178, 187, 235
Nazi-Soviet Non-Aggression Treaty (1939), 256, 284, 457, 481
Neivola (Finland), 50
Neizvestny, 415
Nepenin, Admiral A.I., 37
nepmen, 144–5, 149, 163
Neumann, Franz, 187
New Economic Mechanism (Hungary), 385
New Economic Policy (NEP): introduced, 125–8, 146; and national expansion, 132–3; and dissentient thought, 138; and innovation, 141; reintroduces capitalism, 144–5, 149, 150; effects of, 149, 186; aims, 150; Party disputes over, 150, 158, 173–4; Trotski criticizes, 151, 155–6; prevails against United Opposition, 162; Stalin discontinues, 164, 169, 172–3, 190; Gorbachëv praises, 454
newspapers see press
Nicholas II, Tsar: notoriety, 1, 3; and war with Japan 3; supports industrialization, 4; questionable loyalty to, 12; supports Russian nationalist organizations, 12; represses minorities, 13; and 1905 revolution, 14–17; and popular discontent, 14; lacks respect, 20–22; attitude to Duma, 21–2, 29, 32; and constitutional changes, 23; abdicates, 26, 33; wartime opposition to, 30–33; complacency over labour movement, 32; hated by Bolsheviks, 48; in Tobolsk, 53–4; with family under house arrest, 60; and soviets, 60; and non-Russians, 84; murdered with family, 107; and wage levels, 143; and foreign loans, 163; historical denunciation of, 206; denounces politicking, 522; obstructs civil society, 566–7
The Penguin History of Modern Russia Page 78