Russia’s Choice (Vybor Rossii; party), 526, 528
Rutskoi, Alexander, 495, 500–502, 512, 515–16, 521, 523–5
Ryabushinski, P.P., 39
Rybalchenko, General Stepan D., 299
Rychagov, General P.V., 241
Rykov, Alexei, 172, 176, 221
Ryutin, Mikhail, 188, 193, 213
Ryzhkov, Nikolai, 430–31, 434, 438–9, 441, 445, 450–51, 468–9, 472, 479, 489, 492–3
Saakashvili, Mikhail, 560
sabotage, 250, 471
Sadat, Anwar, 389
Saddam Hussein, 560
Safin, Marat, 559
sailors see navy
Sakhalin, 551
St Petersburg (Petrograd; Leningrad): Bloody Sunday (1905), 13; soviet in, 14, 35–6, 47, 58, 61, 65, 105; renamed Petrograd, 27; in World War I, 31–3; workers’ control in, 38–9; Military-Revolutionary Committee (of soviet), 65; in October Revolution, 65; capital moved to Moscow from, 78; industrial workers, 96–7; Trotski in, 105; prisoners shot in Red Terror, 108; discontent and strikes, 125; renamed Leningrad, 154; World War II siege, 261, 264, 266–7, 285; purge (1948–9), 337, 339; sabotage acts against Gorbachëv, 471; economic buoyancy 541
Sajudis (Lithuanian nationalist organization), 457
Sakha (formerly Yakutia), 521
Sakhalin, 273, 308
Sakharov, Andrei, 366, 381–2, 412–14, 450, 465, 475, 487, 511, 573
Samara (sometime Kuibyshev), 101, 103, 106, 262
samizdat (self-publishing), 380–82, 414–15
Sanina, A.V., 322
Sarajevo, 25
Saratov, 73, 201
Sarkozy, Nicolas, 560
Sazonov, Sergei, 27
Schnittke, Alfred, 415
science and scientists, 247–8, 318, 324, 329
‘scissors’ crisis’, 155
Scott, John, 234
Secretariat (Party), 119, 148
Seleznëv, Gennadi, 531
Semichastny, V.Ye., 364, 376, 385
Separation of Church from State, Decree on (1918), 90, 94
Serbia, 25
Sergei, Metropolitan (later Patriarch), 135, 205, 282
Serov, General I.A., 276
Seven-Year Plan (1959), 351
Shaimiev, Mintimer, 539, 552
Shakhnazarov, Georgi, 450, 486
Shakhrai, Sergei, 512
Shakhty coal-mine (Don Basin), 175
Shalatin, Stanislav, 492–3
Shalyapin, Fëdr, 94
Shamil (Caucasus leader), 13, 316, 368
shares see capitalism
Shatalin, Stanislav, 492
Shatrov, Mikhail: Onward! Onward! Onward!, 450
Shchëkino Chemical Association, 408
Shcherbytskiy, Volodymyr, 403, 428, 457–8, 481
Sheboldaev, B.P., 213
Shelepin, Alexander, 365, 376, 379–80, 384, 390, 405
Shelest, Petro, 390, 403
Shenin, Oleg, 496, 498–9
Shepilov, D.T., 338, 344
Shevardnadze, Eduard: opposes nationalism, 391; succeeds Mzhavanadze, 391; and position of minorities, 424; Gorbachëv appoints Foreign Minister, 438, 512; in Politburo, 438, 456, 486; background and career, 439; supports Gorbachëv, 441, 464; and Eastern Europe, 463; resigns (1990), 493–4; warns Gorbachëv of coup, 496; at siege of Moscow White House, 501; Presidency of Georgia, 512
Shevchenko, Taras, 203, 368
Shkiryatov, M.F., 213
Shklovski, Viktor, 248
Shlyapnikov, Alexander, 118, 161
‘shock therapy’, 534
Shokhin, Alexander, 512
Sholokhov, Mikhail, 201
Short Course see Knorin, V.G. and others
Shostakovich, Dmitri, 249, 281, 319, 573
show trials: of Socialist-Revolutionaries (1922), 128; of Shakhty engineers (1928), 175; of ‘Industrial Party’ (1930), 185; of supposed nationalist opponents, 200
Shushkevich, Stanislav, 506
Sikhinova, Xenia (Miss World 2008), 559
Silaev, Ivan, 495, 500
Simonov, Konstantin, 284
Singing Together (pop duo), 558
Sinyavski, Andrei, 381, 390
Skobelev, Mikhail, 36–7
Skokov, Yuri, 512
Skoropadskyi, Hetman Pavlo, 84
Skrypnik, Mykola, 200
Slënsky, Rudolf, 311
slave labour see Gulag
Slavs, 283
Slivyak, Vladimir, 556
Slovaks, 103
Slutski, Boris, 191
Smirnov, A.P., 188
Smolensk, 136, 146, 261
Sobchak, Anatoli, 548
social acquiescence see acquiescence, social
social sciences, 419
Social Democratic Party (Germany) see German Social Democratic Party
Social-Democrats of Russian Empire see Russian Social-Democratic Workers’ Party
‘Socialism in One Country’, 156, 159, 177
Socialist Revolutionaries, Party of, 14–15, 19–20, 29, 35, 45–6, 48–9, 51–3, 58–9; anti-capitalism, 62–3; and October Revolution, 65–6; non-cooperation with Lenin’s 1917 government, 67; and land redistribution, 68; and Constituent Assembly election, 74, 81; excluded from Sovnarkom, 74; repressed by Bolsheviks, 93; flee to Samara, 101; Kolchak’s coup against, 106; excluded from soviets, 107; purged, 128, 185; denounced, 134; excluded from politics, 161; and opposition to Bolshevik Party, 188
socialists: co-operate with Provisional Government, 46; seek end to World War I, 51–2; demand radical change, 63; and Lenin’s ideas, 63–4, 529; anti-communist, 82
social welfare, 305, 406, 534, 558
Sokolnikov, Grigori, 78, 102
Sokurov, Alexander, 543
soldiers see armed forces; Soviet Army
Solidarity movement (Poland), 411
Soloukhin, Vladimir, 415; Reading Lenin, 478
Soloviev, Yuri, 473
Solovki island (White Sea), 478
Solzhenitsyn, Alexander, 224, 298, 366, 412–14, 476, 511; Cancer Ward, 381; The First Circle, 381; The Gulag Archipelago, 478; One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich, 365; after 1991, 544
Sorge, Richard, 259
South Korean airliner KAL-007, 432
South Osetiya, 560
Sovetskaya Rossiya (newspaper), 458, 497
Soviet Army (formerly Red Army): rise to power, 85; formed, 101; in civil war, 103–4, 106, 110, 113, 116–17; Trotski organizes, 105–6; supplies, 109–10; officers, 112, 279; atrocities, 116; indiscipline, 119; invades Poland, 120–21, 126, 141; unrest in, 122; restores imperial boundaries, 128; used against peasants, 146; appointments to, 148; capital support for, 186; leaders purged, 220, 223, 225, 231, 236; rivalry with state organs, 233; nomenklatura in, 236; clashes with Japanese, 255; in Finnish winter war (1939–40), 257; and threat of German invasion, 259; campaigns in World War II, 261–9, 278; and defeat of Germany, 272; and war against Japan, 272–3; political commissars in, 279; rations, 279; political indoctrination in, 280–81; nationalities in, 283; World War II service in, 285–6; deserters and German collaborators, 287–8; experience of West, 297, 324; in Eastern Europe, 309, 481–2, 484; renamed, 323; Khrushchëv’s policy on, 346; Khrushchëv reduces, 372; power, 398; withdrawal from Afghanistan, 443; Gorbachëv reduces, 466; discontent with Gorbachëv regime, 480; quells unrest in Transcaucasia, 482; and unemployment, 518; see also Russian Army
Soviet of Workers’ and Soldiers’ Deputies, St Petersburg, 14, 35–6, 47
soviets: support Bolsheviks, 58; as alternative government, 60; and October Revolution, 62, 474; power under October Revolution, 69; size, 73; working-class apathy on, 83
sovkhozes (collective farms), 183, 224, 243, 350, 440, 470; see also collectivization
sovnarkhozy see regional economic councils
Sovnarkom see Council of People’s Commissars
Soyuz: formed (1990), 492–3, 497
Spain: economic improvement, 398
Spanish Civil War,
154, 230
Spanish Communist Party, 398
Spartacus, 93
Spartakists (Germany), 112
Special Transcaucasian Committee, 60
spies: anxiety over, 249–50
Spitak (Armenia): 1988 earthquake, 468
sport, 140, 191, 247, 357, 420–21; see also leisure and recreation
sputniks, 351
SS-20 missiles, 400
Stakhanov, Aleksei (and Stakhanovism), 217, 244
Stalin, Iosif: favours co-operation with Mensheviks, 47; supports Lenin’s plan to seize power, 61; aims to retain old empire, 69; relations with Lenin, 72, 151, 153, 196–7; and 1918 peace agreement, 77; aims for unitary state, 83; Georgian origins, 85, 195–6, 201, 315; antipathy to Trotski, 112; in Politburo, 112; federalism and republics, 114, 129–30, 132; and Georgian nationalism, 133; cultivates common touch, 142; opposes Trotski at 11th Party Congress, 151; as Party General Secretary, 151, 157; Lenin criticizes, 152, 174, 227, 339; and Lenin’s death, 153; and succession to Lenin, 154–5, 157, 197; attacks Trotski, 156; on ‘socialism in One Country’, 156, 159, 177; manner and methods, 157, 175, 315; defeats United Opposition, 160, 162, 164; discontinues NEP, 164, 172, 187, 190, 275; opposes higher agricultural prices, 164; hardens policies, 169, 171–6, 195; orders grain collection, 170, 172, 174; introduces first Five-Year Plan, 171–8, 182, 188, 190, 198–9; and industrial development, 175–6, 194, 234, 275–6, 329; foreign policy, 178; imposes collectivization, 179–82, 250; and Terror, 185, 210, 221–9, 231–2, 235, 250, 275, 340, 342; builds up defence capacity, 186; opposition to, 187–8, 193–4; view of Germany, 187; aims at personal dictatorship, 189; and material improvements, 192–4; background, career and character, 195–8, 226; and wife’s suicide, 195; personality cult, 198–200, 237, 250, 289, 315; accused of genocide, 202; and Soviet culture and identity, 205–8; reads historical works, 206; and Party’s power, 211–12; loses General Secretaryship at 17th Party Congress, 213–14; purges Party and armed services, 214–21, 223, 225, 231; supremacy, 219, 232–3, 238, 241–2, 314–15, 551; purges foreign communist parties, 229–31; intervenes in Spanish Civil War, 230; and totalitarianism, 235, 252–3; and communist theory and history, 237–9; introduces 1936 Constitution, 239–40; supporting network, 240–3; pressurizes subordinates, 244–5; and arts, 249; unpopularity, 250–51; and threat of World War II, 254–5, 259–60; pact with Nazis (1939), 255–6; and outbreak of World War II, 256–7; conciliates Hitler, 259; and German invasion, 260–61; and conduct of World War II, 262–6; considers separate peace, 268; meets Allied war leaders, 268–71, 273; relations with Allies, 269–70; and post-World War II European settlement, 270–72, 306–10; position at end of World War II, 273; orders wartime deportations, 276–7; World War II administration and concessions, 279–85; wartime concessions to Church, 281–2; hated by minority nationalities, 284; post-World War II repressive regime, 292–301; and Soviet-occupied Eastern Europe, 305–6; Tito criticizes, 310; militaristic foreign policy, 313; health decline, 314, 324; assumes Generalissimus title, 315; identifies with Russians, 315–17; chauvinism, 316–18; cultural views and interests, 317–20; ideological views, 321–3; life-style, 321; anti-Semitism, 324; at 19th Party Congress, 325–7; collapse, death and burial, 327–8, 330, 361; successors, 331–2, 376; denounced by Khrushchëv at 20th Party Congress, 338–42, 344, 360; appoints Brezhnev, 383; rehabilitation moves, 405; Gorbachëv on, 451, 454; Yakovlev criticizes, 459; economic rigidity, 550; ‘Dizzy with Success’, 180; The Economic Problems of Socialism in the USSR, 322; The Foundations of Leninism (lectures), 157–8; Marxism and Questions of Linguistics, 318, 322
Stalingrad (formerly Tsaritsyn): in civil war, 198; in World War II, 265–6, 269
Stamenov, Ivan, 268
standard of living see living standards
standardization (of products), 192
Stankevich, Sergei, 520
‘Star Wars’ see Strategic Defence Initiative
Starkov, Vladislav, 479, 449
Starodubtsev, Vasili, 497, 499, 515
Starovoitova, Galina, 521
state, the: defined, 88; withering away theory, 239–40, 321; power of,
243–5; Stalin’s organization of, 322–4, 329–30; overcentralized, 330; popular suspicion of, 416
State Agro-Industrial Committee, 437
State Committee for the Agro-Industrial Complex (Gosagroprom), 440
State Committee of Defence (World War II), 262, 264
State Committee of the Emergency Situation (1991), 499–503, 515, 520
State Committee of Religious Affairs, 369
State Council: formed (1991), 502
State Duma (Russian Federation), see Duma
state economic ownership (nationalization), 79, 92, 94
State Enterprise, Law on the, 451–2, 460, 468, 470
State Planning Commission (Gosplan): Trotski supports, 151; and modification of NEP, 159; 1925 control figures, 160; Stalin intimidates, 175; and First Five-Year Plan, 179; and Khrushchëv’s reforms, 373; and Kosygin’s reforms, 379
statistical misinformation, 467
Stavropol Region, 435–7
Sten, Jan, 197
Stepashin, Sergei: becomes Prime Minister, 530, 545
Stolypin, Pëtr, 16–17, 21, 111
Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT I and SALT II), 388, 399–400
Strategic Defence Initiative (‘Star Wars’), 432, 443–4, 446
strikes: pre-World War I, 9, 21; in World War I, 32, 38; Party proposes banning, 121; crushed by Politburo, 127; under NEP, 143; under Gorbachëv, 472, 494; and capitalism, 514, 542
Strugatski, Arkadi and Boris, 415
Strumilin, S.G., 171–2, 322
Sudakov, Guri, 544
Sudetenland, 231, 255
Suez crisis (1956), 343
suicide, 417
Sultan-Galiev, Mirza Said, 131
Sumgait, 457
Supreme Soviet: elections to, 240, 298, 475; convened after Stalin’s death, 331; supervisory and veto rights, 479; criticisms of Gorbachëv, 480; and economic crisis, 492
Suslov, Mikhail: career, 236; on Khrushchëv, 346; opposes Pasternak, 365; Khrushchëv encourages, 373; and ousting of Khrushchëv, 376–8; lacks ambition for leadership, 384; and succession to Brezhnev, 404, 426; censors scholars, 416; promotes ideology, 418–19; death, 426
Sverdlov University, Moscow, 141
Sverdlov, Yakov M.: supports Bolsheviks in power, 61, 74, 85; and 1917/18 peace agreement, 77–8; Jewishness, 85; administrative agreement with colleagues, 110–11; and central authority, 111
Sverdlovsk (now Yekaterinburg), 107, 418, 504, 521
Sweden, 294
Syrtsov, Sergei, 170, 187
Szklarska Pore¸ba (Poland), 308
Tajikestan (formerly Tajikistan), 131, 370, 422, 481–2, 506, 520, 535
Talyzin, Nikolai, 439
Tambov (Volga), 119, 124, 127
Tannenberg, Battle of (1914), 26
Tarkovski, Andrei, 415
Tarle, E.V., 200, 206
Tashkent: riots (1969), 390
Tatar Republic, 114
Tatars, 84, 114
Tatarstan: demands recognition of independence, 490, 521; welcomes putsch against Gorbachëv, 503; after communism, 539
taxation: in kind, 121, 124–5; on super-profits, 163; post-World War II, 304; and centralization under Yeltsin, 521
Tbilisi: 1989 demonstration and massacre, 473, 479
Tchaikovsky, Peter see Chaikovski, Pëtr
teachers, 191, 541
Tehran meeting (1943), 263, 269
television, 420
Tereshchenko, M.I., 57
terror, 107–8, 112, 116, 145, 185, 210, 216, 221–9, 231–2, 235, 244, 250, 275, 340, 342, 348, 381–3, 533, 567; see also purges
Thatcher, Margaret, 439, 444
Third World, 389, 398–9
Thorez, Maurice, 306
Tikhon, Patriarch, 54, 93–4, 135, 282
Tikhonov, Nikolai, 403–4, 422, 428, 43
4–5, 437, 439
Timashuk, Lidya, 324
timber, 4, 159
Tito, Josip Broz, 309–10, 332, 337, 340
Tizyakov, Alexander, 497, 499
Tobolsk, 54
Togliatti, Palmiro, 306, 339
Tojo, Hideki, 293
Tolmachev, V.N., 188
Tolstikov, V.S., 392
Tolstoy, Aleksei, 248–9
Tolstoy, Lev, 11, 17, 324
Tomski, Mikhail, 172, 176, 221
Torgsin organization, 193
torture: sanctioned in interrogation, 221
totalitarian theory, 235, 252
Toynbee, A., 536
tractors, 181
trade unions: set up in empire, 13; Party controversy over, 121–2; membership, 140; and labour movement, 144; Khrushchëv and, 361; holiday centres, 409–10, 421; under Yeltsin, 514; see also Free Trade Union Association
trading: private, 517, 525–6
Trans-Siberian railway, 4, 38, 103
Transcaucasian Commissariat, 83
Transcaucasian Federation, 133, 207
Transcaucasus: Soviet republics in, 114, 133; independence movements, 482; see also Caucasus
travel (abroad), 357–8, 410
Treaty on the Economic Commonwealth (1991), 506
Trotski, Lev: arrested (1905), 14; works with Bolsheviks (1917), 49; imprisoned (1917), 50, 105; and Lenin’s call for seizure of power, 59, 61; leads Red Guards, 65; forms government with Lenin, 66–7; cleverness, 72; supports Lenin, 74; negotiates peace at Brest-Litovsk, 76–7; revolutionary aims, 82; Jewishness, 85, 201; and civil war, 101, 106; and Czechoslovak Legion, 103; background and character, 104–6; denounces Lenin for split with Mensheviks, 104; organizes Red Army, 104–6, 112; in Petrograd soviet, 104–5; demands immediate socialism, 105; advocates terror, 107, 112; administrative agreement with colleagues, 110; antipathy to Stalin, 112; in Politburo, 112; proposes labour armies, 120; imposes tax-in-kind, 121; proposals on unions, 121–2; supports NEP, 125; and Church, 135; on writers, 138; opposes NEP, 150–52; Lenin seeks support from, 151; planning principles, 151, 154–7; Lenin criticizes in political testament, 152; disagreements with Lenin, 153; and succession to Lenin, 154–5; Party hostility to, 156–5; and stabilization of capital, 159; in United Opposition, 160–61, 164; suppressed, 161; attacks Politburo foreign policy, 162; expelled from Party and exiled, 162, 164; calls for higher industrial prices, 164; deported, 176; accused of spying (1935), 216; supporters purged and sentenced, 216, 223; contact with clandestine groups in Russia, 218; assassinated, 231; denounced, 238; Khrushchëv declines to rehabilitate, 341; The New Course, 156; Terrorism and Communism, 112
The Penguin History of Modern Russia Page 80