Nikitin, A.M., 57
Nikolaev, Leonid, 214
Nikon, Patriarch, 10
Nixon, Richard M., 353, 398
Niyazov, Saparmurad, 503
NKGB (People’s Commissariat of State Security), 297; see also KGB
Nkrumah, Kwame, 389
NKVD (People’s Commissariat of Internal Affairs): and Cheka, 69; absorbs OGPU, 214; Yezhov heads, 218; Stalin’s links with, 219; in Great Terror, 221–2, 228–9; and Party purges, 221; infiltrates émigré groups, 231; status, 232; rivalry with Red Army, 233; runs special shops, 238; Beria heads, 242; informers, 245; in annexed territories, 258; and deportation of nationalities, 276; reduces diet in Gulag, 278
Nobel, Alfred, 4, 121
Noga (Ukrainian policeman), 287
nomenklatura: established, 148; numbers, 236; conditions, 237, 244, 321; children rebel, 370; and market opportunities under Yeltsin, 513, 515; under privatization, 538–9
Norilsk, 335, 472
North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), 312, 330, 398, 537, 550, 560–1
Norway: Germans occupy, 258
Novaya gazeta (newspaper), 556
Novo-Ogarëvo agreement see Union Treaty
Novocherkassk, 364, 372, 385, 409
Novosibirsk, 431, 440; Institute of Economics, 450
Novotný, Antonin, 386
Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (1969), 388
nuclear power stations: accidents, 445
nuclear weapons: development of, 301, 304, 311, 318, 336, 346, 353–4, 374, 432; Gorbachëv proposes destruction of, 465
Obama, Barack, 562
Observer (British newspaper), 341
‘October Events’ (1993), 525–6
October Manifesto (1905), 14, 16
October Revolution see revolution of October 1917
Octobrists, 16, 22, 25
Odessa, 102
Ogonëk (magazine), 449, 480
OGPU (United Main Political Administration): succeeds Cheka, 131; undermines Church, 135; and intelligentsia, 137; and industrial unrest, 144; and United Opposition, 161–2; and Stalin’s policies, 171; and Shakhty engineers, 175; suppresses industrial discontent, 184; acts against political opponents, 185, 188, 211; and Terror, 210; as power-base, 211; power diminished, 214; see also NKVD
oil: pre-World War I, 4; and foreign concessions, 121, 126; exports, 159, 466, 535; world price rise (1973), 399, 408; state subsidies for, 525; motive for attacking Chechnya, 533; after 1991, 536, 553, 561
Okhrana (political police), 17–18, 20–21, 38–9, 70, 72, 89
Okudzhava, Bulat, 365
Old Believers, 10, 135
Olympics, Beijing, 559
one-party state, 119, 123–4, 161, 169, 239, 406, 476, 485, 488, 553
‘oligarchs, the’, 532, 538, 548–9, 561, 563
‘Orange Revolution’ (Ukraine), 555
Ordzhonikidze, Sergo: beats up opponent, 152; and Stalin’s succeeding Lenin, 155; supports Stalin’s policies, 171, 175; and effects of forced collectivization, 181; protects managers and engineers, 194; Stalin attacks, 195, 211; conflict with Molotov, 213; challenges Stakhanovism, 217; isolation, 218–19; death, 219
Organization of Petroleum-Exporting Countries (OPEC), 399
Orgburo, 111, 119
Orthodox Church: divisions in, 10–11; and national values, 10–11; avoids political involvement, 54; separated from state, 90, 94; resists communists, 93–4; persecuted, 116, 135–6, 203–5; and Russian identity, 134–5; and ‘Living Church’, 135; excluded from historical writings, 206; tolerated in World War II, 281–2; under German occupation, 287; Stalin subdues, 317; Khrushchëv attacks, 369; millennium, 476; restrictions relaxed under Gorbachëv, 476; under Yeltsin, 538, 544, 557
Osetiya, North and South, 521
Ostministerium (German), 287
Our Home’s Russia (Nash Dom-Rossiya; party), 530
Ovechkin, Valentin: Rural Daily Rounds, 320
Ozerlag, 329
Pakistan, 388
Pamyat (Russian organization), 458
parks, 191
participation, political, 406
partisans (World War II), 288–9, 298
Pasternak, Boris, 139, 248, 316, 365; Doctor Zhivago, 365
Patolichev, Nikolai, 278
patriotism, 288–90, 321–2
patronage, 539
Patrushev, Nikolai, 545
Paulus, Field Marshal Friedrich, 266
Pavlov, General D.G., 260, 265
Pavlov, Ivan, 8, 248, 573
Pavlov, Valentin, 493–4, 496, 499
Peace, Decree of (Lenin’s), 68
peaceful co-existence, 399
Pearl Harbor, 268
peasants: and farm technology, 5; and land tenure, 5–6, 22, 34, 39–41, 55–6, 67–8, 86; traditionalism, 5–6, 22, 90, 130, 147; emancipation (1861), 6, 71; and industrial workers, 8–9; migrant and seasonal labourers, 8; unrest, 13, 119–20, 122, 124, 127, 183; and 1905 revolution, 14–15; representation in Duma, 15–16; Socialist Revolutionaries and, 19–20; in World War I, 28, 31; demand increased prices for produce, 52, 90; act against gentry landlords, 55–6; in army unrest, 56–7; self-government, 60, 90; direct action by, 69, 86; learn of October Revolution, 73; refuse to sell grain, 79; and land nationalization, 82; servicemen demobilized (1918), 86–7; middle (serednyaki), 90–91; grain hoarding, 109–10, 163–4, 174; conscription of, 120; and tax-in-kind, 124–5; and NEP, 126; religious observance, 135, 204; coercion against, 146; standard of living, 146–7; and United Opposition, 160; and forced collectivization, 179–84; imprisoned, 179; Stalin’s attitude to, 182–3; in Ukraine, 202; private plots and marketing, 243, 284, 298–9, 351, 402, 516; migrate to towns and cities, 245–6, 328, 421; behaviour and manners, 246; World War II conditions, 286; post-World War II taxation, 304; under Khrushchëv, 358–9; and Gorbachëv’s reforms, 470–71; see also agriculture; collectivization; kolkhozes; kulaki
Pelevin, Viktor, 543
penal policy, 382; see also criminality and criminal gangs; Gulag pensions, 357, 541
Penza province, 39, 108
People’s Commissariat of Enlightenment, 95, 132
People’s Commissariat of Food Supplies, 109
People’s Commissariat of Internal Affairs, 97
People’s Commissariat for Nationalities (Narkomnats), 113, 116, 131
People’s Commissariats, 211, 216, 323
People’s Will (party), 18
perestroika (reconstruction), 441–2, 444, 464, 466, 480, 485, 488, 490
Perle, Richard, 444
Pershing missiles, 400
Persia see Iran
Peter I (the Great), Tsar, 4, 206, 226, 371, 512
Petrakov, Nikolai, 493
Petrograd see St Petersburg
Petrograd Society of Factory and Works Owners, 39
Petrovorets, 296
Pikhoya, Lyudmila, 511
Piłsudski, Józef, 120
Pimen, Patriarch, 476
Platform of the Forty-Six, 156
Platonov, S.F., 200
Plzeň (Czechoslovakia), 336
Podgorny, Nikolai, 236, 373, 378, 384, 388, 403
Pokrovski, M.N., 206
Poland: 1867 revolt, 12; 1905 unrest, 13; pre-World War I discontent, 23; offered independence (1917), 69; 1920 war with Russia, 120–1, 141; wins provinces, 128; right-wing dictatorship, 171; deportations to Kazakhstan, 225; Communist Party purged, 231; 1939 invasion of, 256–7; and Russian advance in World War II, 267–8; officers murdered, 268; post-World War II settlement, 270–71, 306–7; and formation of Cominform, 308; collectivization in, 311; unrest in, 336, 342, 344; economic expansion, 386; workers’ opposition develops, 409, 411; affected by Chernobyl disaster, 445; communism collapses in (1989), 483; economic recovery, 519; joins NATO 537; relations with Russia, 537, 556, 561, 562
police: venality, 519
Politburo: introduced, 111–12; and local disputes, 119; and NEP, 124–5, 143–4, 156, 162–3; crushes strikes, 127, 143–4;
and republics and nationalities, 129–30; suppresses class enemies, 137; encourages education, 142; power control in, 151–2, 211–12, 216; and Lenin’s death, 153; criticized by Platform of the Forty-Six, 156; and economic recovery, 159–60, 162, 217; Trotski criticizes, 159; and industrial planning, 160, 178; and Stalin’s grain procurement, 172–3; agrarian policy, 179–81; and national security, 187; and living standards, 193; authority and jurisdiction, 208; sanctions violence, 211; meetings reduced, 219; Stalin undermines power, 220; and Great Terror, 221; Stalin reduces meetings, 232, 339; privileges, 320–21; redesignated Presidium, 327; silence on Stalin’s policies, 330; and Eastern Europe, 385–7; name restored, 385; and foreign policy, 388–90; and non-Russian nationalism, 390, 423–4; stabilizes policies (1960s), 392; resolution on agricultural production (1976), 402; age of members, 404–5, 439; on developed socialism, 405–6; economic reforms, 408–9; abolishes educational discrimination, 410; sanctions invasion of Afghanistan, 411; and dissenters, 413–15; and material improvements, 417; and control of people, 420; and Andropov’s reforms, 431; and appointment of Gorbachëv as Chernenko’s successor, 435; Gorbachëv’s appointments to, 438–9, 486; relations with Gorbachëv, 443, 446–7; and Gorbachëv’s reforms, 451, 463, 485; ethnic composition, 456, 478; and economic crisis (1980s), 470; powers reduced at 28th Party Congress, 490
Politkovskaya, Anna, 556
pollution see environment
Polozkov, Ivan, 488–9, 494–5
Polyanski, Dmitri, 390, 403
Pomerantsev, Vladimir, 335
Ponomarëv, B.N., 360
Popkov, Matvei D., 148
Popov, Gavril, 475, 520
Popov, Nikolai, 198
popular fronts, 230
Portsmouth, Treaty of (1906), 3
Portugal: African empire collapses, 399
Poskrëbyshev, A.N., 219, 324
Pospelov, P.N., 237, 337
Postyshev, Pëtr, 213, 220, 242
Potsdam conference (1945), 273, 306
poverty, 7–9, 180–2, 249, 541
Powers, Gary, 353
Prague: Gorbachëv visits, 463–4
‘Prague Spring’ (1968), 386–7
Pravda (newspaper): circulation, 72; Trotski writes in, 105; Party propaganda in, 140; and NEP, 172; sale price, 191; Stalin edits, 196; in countryside, 200; local investigations, 244; on espionage threat, 249; attacks Tito, 310; on agricultural problems, 320; on post-Stalin reforms, 332; 1962 debate on economic reform, 372; and Khrushchëv’s successors, 378; postpones announcement of Kosygin’s death, 403; and static official policy, 409; on Gorbachëv, 440; reports Yeltsin’s drunkenness, 489
Pre-Parliament (Provisional Council of the Russian Republic), 58
Preobrazhenski, Yevgeni, 153, 156–7, 161–2; The ABC of Communism (with Bukharin), 142
Presidium: Bureau of the, 327; under Khrushchëv, 344–5
press: circulation, 191; and glasnost, 449; under Yeltsin, 538, 549
Press, Decree of (Lenin’s, 1917), 69, 94–5
prices: and taxation, 163; agricultural, 164, 172, 363–4; post-World War II, 299; kept low, 410; rises under Gorbachëv, 492, 495; liberalization under Yeltsin, 509–10, 513, 525; see also inflation
priests and clerics: denied civic rights, 89, 136; persecuted, 203–4, 282, 298, 382; see also Orthodox Church; religion
Primakov, Yevgeni, 530, 547
Princip, Gavrilo, 25
prisoners of war: Soviet, 264, 277, 280, 298, 300–301; German, 353
prisons see Gulag
private plots see peasants
privatization, 80, 515, 525–6, 531, 534, 541–2
privileges and benefits, 237, 244, 314, 320–21, 371, 410, 421
Prokhanov, Alexander, 497
Proletarian Culture (Proletkult), 88
Provisional Council of the Russian Republic see Pre-Parliament
Provisional Government (1917): formed, 26, 33–4; ineffectiveness, 36; appoints commissars, 40; and nationalities’ demands, 40–41; and regional reorganization, 45, 49; alliance with socialists, 46; Lenin opposes, 47–8; Kerenski leads, 50–51; Petrograd demonstrations against, 50; and conduct of World War I, 53; and social disruption, 55; second and third coalitions, 57; unpopularity, 58, 60; overthrown in October Revolution, 62; and foreign loans, 163
Pskov, 283
psychiatry: punitive, 382
Public Chamber, 557
Pugachëva, Alla, 539
Pugo, Boris, 494, 499–501
Pulkovo Heights, near St Petersburg, 67
purges, 214–21, 223, 225, 229–31, 236, 337, 339; see also terror
Pushkin, Alexander, 11, 206, 322, 324
Putilov armaments plant, 32
Putin, Vladimir: becomes Prime Minister, 545; relationship to Yeltsin, 545–7; and Chechnya, 533, 538, 546, 547, 555, 566; becomes President, 547; background and policies, 530, 545–61, 563; and ‘the oligarchs’, 532, 538, 548–9, 561, 563; attitude to communism, 548
Pyatakov, Grigori L., 152, 162, 219–20
Pyatigorsk, 320
Pyatnitski, Osip, 221
Radek, Karl, 161, 219
radio, 191
Radio Liberty, 415
Radishchev, Alexander, 17
Railwaymen’s Union, 66
railways, 4, 28, 38, 103
Rajk, László, 311
Rëkosi, Mëtyës, 343
Rakovsky, C.G., 134
Rapallo, Treaty of (1922), 158–9
Rashidov, Sharaf, 391
Rasputin, Grigori, 20, 27
Rasputin, Valentin, 415, 497
rationing: and class, 87, 95; low level, 119; abolished (1921), 127; abolished (1936), 249; in World War II, 278; in 1970s, 418; under Gorbachëv and Yeltsin, 470; see also food supply
Reagan, Nancy, 444
Reagan, Ronald, 411; Strategic Defence Initiative, 432, 443, 446; summit with Andropov, 432; and Gorbachëv, 444, 460, 463–5
recreation see leisure; sport
Red Army see Soviet Army
Red Guards: in October Revolution, 61, 65, 67, 75
Red Terror (1918), 108, 116
refuseniks, 400, 414
regional economic councils (sovnarkhozy), 351, 379, 389
regionalism, 45, 115, 424–5, 521
Reichenau, Field-Marshal Walter von, 288
religion: popular observance and belief, 9–10, 250, 370; Bolshevik harassment of, 135–6, 203–5; resistance to Party, 245; tolerated in World War II, 281–2; under German occupation, 287; Khrushchëv attacks, 369–70; see also Muslims; Orthodox Church
Repentance (film), 450
Repin, Ivan, 11
republics (Soviet): status, 114–16
Retyunin, Mark, 280
revolution of 1905, 13–14
revolution of February 1917, 34–5, 45, 47–8, 53, 82, 92, 567
revolution of October 1917, 62, 65, 73–4, 80, 85, 571; 70th anniversary, 453–4
Reykjavik: 1986 summit, 463, 465
Rhineland, 230
Ribbentrop, Joachim von, 256–7
Riga: lost in World War I, 53–4, 77; 1962 disturbances in, 364; 1988 protests in, 473
Right Cause (party), 561
Right Centre, 88
Right Deviation, 176, 221
risings (popular) see discontent, social
Rodos, B.V., 340
Rodzyanko, Mikhail, 32
Rokossovski, Marshal Konstantin, 265
Romania: wins provinces, 128; right-wing dictatorship, 171; USSR annexes territory (1940), 258; Soviet post-War interest in, 271; in Moldavia, 284; provides contingents for German army, 286; and formation of Cominform, 308; condemns Brezhnev Doctrine, 388; criticizes Soviet leadership, 409; communist collapse in, 483–4
Romanian language, 316, 383
Romanov dynasty, 1, 20–21, 26, 33–4, 41, 72, 89, 107; see also Nicholas II, Tsar
Romanov, Grigori, 404, 434, 438–9
Roosevelt, Franklin D., 263, 269–72
Rosneft, 550, 551
Rostr
opovich, Mtsislav, 501
Royal Dutch Shell, 550
Rukh (Ukarinian popular front), 458, 481
rural life see agriculture; peasants
Russia (pre-Soviet): geography and definition, 3, 23, 128, 554; conditions before World War I, 6–7, 9; in World War I, 26–7; 1917/18 peace agreement, 75–7; territorial losses (1918), 84; see also Russian Socialist Federal Soviet Republic; Union of Soviet Socialist Republics
Russian Academy of Sciences, 544
Russian Army (post-1991): formed, 518; in Chechnya, 533, 538, 541; corrupt management of, 533; unreadiness 533; incompetence
538; lack of political influence 538; see also Soviet Army
Russian Association of Proletarian Writers, 171, 201
Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks) see Communist Party of the Soviet Union
Russian Communist Workers’ Party, 524
Russian Congress of People’s Deputies, 514
Russian Empire see Russia (pre-Soviet)
Russian Federation see Russian Socialist Federal Soviet Republic
Russian language, 319, 367
Russian Liberation Army, 277, 300
Russian Orthodox Church see Orthodox Church
Russian Social-Democratic Workers’ Party, 14–15, 19–20, 71, 105
Russian Socialist Federal Soviet Republic (RSFSR; from 1936 Russian Soviet Federal Socialist Republic; now Russian Federation): formed, 84; Constitution, 88–9; state organization, 98, 103, 115–16, 129; autonomous republics in, 114, 129, 132, 391, 490; status, 114–16, 424; Party organization, 185; borders, 207; World War II casualties and damage, 296; part of East Prussia annexed to, 306; wage increases, 357; Bureau for, 367, 389; minorities in, 424; forms own Communist Party, 488–9; declares sovereignty (1990), 490; secession from USSR, 505; Yeltsin’s leadership, 511
Russian Supreme Soviet, 512–15, 521–4
Russian Union of Industrialists and Entrepreneurs, 515
Russians (people): geographical distribution, 23, 205; pro-Bolshevik sentiments, 83; and Bolshevik rule, 85, 128–9; in autonomous republics, 114; in RSFSR, 114–15; dominance, 132, 134, 329, 424, 478, 556; culture and identity, 205–8, 235, 246–7, 317–18, 423, 540–41, 553–4; serve in World War II, 283; casualties in World War II, 295–6; Stalin identifies with, 315–17, 554 ; and chauvinism, 316–17; Khrushchëv downplays, 363, 367; in non-Russian republics, 366–7, 457–8; birth rate, 422; and nationalism, 458; in Baltic republics, 482; mentioned in ‘A Word to the People’ protest, 497; and end of USSR, 510; intimidated in successor states, 520; see also nationalism (Russian)
The Penguin History of Modern Russia Page 79