The Anxious Triumph

by Donald Sassoon

  37. Trentmann, Free Trade Nation, pp. 178, 321–2.

  38. The argument is developed by Cain and Hopkins, British Imperialism, esp. Chapters 3 and 7.

  39. Michael Edelstein, ‘Foreign Investment and Empire, 1860–1914’, in Roderick Floud and Donald McCloskey (eds), The Economic History of Britain since 1700, vol. 2: 1860 to the 1970s, Cambridge University Press 1981, p. 70.

  40. Davis and Huttenback, Mammon and the Pursuit of Empire, pp. 112–21.

  41. Cited in ibid, p. 121.

  42. Keith M. Wilson (ed.), The International Impact of the Boer War, Routledge, London 2014 (revised ed.), pp. 160–61.

  43. O’Brien, ‘The Costs and Benefits of British Imperialism, 1846–1914’, pp. 189, 192, 197.

  44. Davis and Huttenback, Mammon and the Pursuit of Empire, pp. 14–15; O’Brien, ‘The Costs and Benefits of British Imperialism, 1846–1914’, pp. 187, 188; see also the ensuing debate: Paul Kennedy’s response in Past & Present, no. 125, November 1989, pp. 186–192, and Patrick O’Brien’s reply, pp. 192–9.

  45. According to Avner Offer, Great Britain spent less than France except during the Boer War; see his ‘The British Empire, 1870– 1914’, p. 225.

  46. Edelstein, ‘Foreign Investment and Empire, 1860–1914’, p. 74.

  47. Karl Marx, Capital, vol. 3, Progress Publishers, Moscow 1971, p. 249.

  48. D. C. M. Platt, ‘Canada and Argentina: The First Preference of the British Investor, 1904–14’, Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History, vol. 13, no. 3, May 1985, p. 80.

  49. All figures in Davis and Huttenback, Mammon and the Pursuit of Empire, pp. 43–52.

  50. Ferguson, Empire, p. 317.

  51. Rudyard Kipling, ‘The Lesson’, first published in The Times, 29 July 1901.

  52. Green, The Crisis of Conservatism, p. 17.

  53. Halik Kochanski, ‘Wolseley and the South African War’, in John Gooch (ed.), The Boer War: Direction, Experience, and Image, Frank Cass, London 2000, p. 59.

  54. John R. Seeley, The Expansion of England: Two Courses of Lectures, Macmillan, London 1914, p. 233.

  55. Gaillard, Jules Ferry, p. 357.

  56. H. H. (Sir ‘Harry’) Johnston, ‘The Development of Tropical Africa under British Auspices’, Fortnightly Review, no. 86, October 1890, p. 687.

  57. N. J. Ryan, The Making of Modern Malaysia, Oxford University Press, Kuala Lumpur 1967, pp. 122–3, cited in Porter, The Lion’s Share, p. 5.

  58. Seeley, The Expansion of England, p. 10.

  59. Bernard Porter, The Absent-Minded Imperialists: Empire, Society, and Culture in Britain, Oxford University Press 2004, p. 53, who takes his title from John Seeley’s remark cited above.

  60. Ibid, p. 161.

  61. Ibid, p. 49.

  62. Wiener, English Culture and the Decline of the Industrial Spirit, 1850–1980, p. 84; see C. R. L. Fletcher and Rudyard Kipling, A History of England, Doubleday, Page and Co., New York 1911, pp. 246– 7.

  63. Fletcher and Kipling, A History of England, p. 299.

  64. Ozouf, ‘Le thème du patriotisme dans les manuels primaires’, p. 23.

  65. Ibid, p. 24.

  66. David Cannadine, Ornamentalism: How the British Saw their Empire, Penguin, London 2002, p. 29.

  67. Porter, The Absent-Minded Imperialists, p. 254.

  68. The British MP John Bright (1811–89) in a speech to his constituents, Birmingham Town Hall, 29 October 1858, cited in Herman, Gandhi and Churchill, p. 29.

  69. Hobson, Imperialism, p. 158.

  70. Hubert Deschamps, ‘La vocation coloniale et métier d’administrateur’, Afrique française, September 1931, p. 499, cited in William B. Cohen, ‘The Lure of Empire: Why Frenchmen Entered the Colonial Service’, Journal of Contemporary History, vol. 4, no. 1, 1969, p. 111. By 1960, Deschamps had reached the summit of the French colonial service as Gouverneur-Général des Colonies.

  71. Bédarida, ‘Perspectives sur le mouvement ouvrier et l’impérialisme’, pp. 34–5.

  72. Maurice Zimmermann. ‘Leçon d’ouverture du cours d’histoire et de géographie coloniales’, Annales de Géographie, vol. 9, no. 43, 1900, pp. 76–80.

  73. Offer, ‘The British Empire, 1870–1914’, p. 236.

  74. Catherine Hall and Sonya Rose (eds), At Home with the Empire: Metropolitan Culture and the Imperial World, Cambridge University Press 2006, pp. 2, 25.

  75. Joanna de Groot, ‘Metropolitan Desires and Colonial Connections: Reflections on Consumption and Empire’, in Hall and Rose (eds), At Home with the Empire, pp. 172, 176–7.

  76. Ardant, Histoire financière, p. 333.

  77. Porter, The Absent-Minded Imperialists, pp. 238–40.

  78. Ibid, p. 306.

  79. Roberts, Salisbury, p. 694.

  80. Lord Robert Cecil (Lord Salisbury), ‘English Politics and Parties’, Bentley’s Quarterly Review, vol. 1, March 1859, p. 25.

  81. Speech to the Constitutional Club, December 1898, cited in Roberts, Salisbury, p. 667.

  82. See Lord Salisbury’s speech to the House of Lords on the Second Reading of the Anglo-German Agreement Bill, 10 July 1890: http://hansard.millbanksystems.com/lords/1890/jul/10/second-reading-2

  83. Benjamin Disraeli (Lord Beaconsfield), Selected Speeches, vol. 2, edited by T. E. Kebbel, Longmans, Green and Co., London 1882, pp. 523–35, esp. pp. 527–8.

  84. Ibid, pp. 530–31.

  85. Cain and Hopkins, British Imperialism, pp. 381–2.

  86. Daniel J. Rankin, The Zambesi Basin and Nyassaland, Blackwood, London 1893, pp. 204, 263.

  87. Thomas Babington Macaulay, Speech of 10 July 1833, in Miscellaneous Writings and Speeches, vol. 4: http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/2170

  88. Peter Handford, ‘Edward John Eyre and the Conflict of Laws’, Melbourne Law Review, vol. 32, no. 3, 2008: http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/journals/MelbULawRw/2008/26.html

  89. Letter of 30 November 1865, cited in Peter Ackroyd, Dickens, Vintage, London 1999, p. 1,025.

  90. Joseph Chamberlain, Speech to the House of Commons, 20 March 1893, in Mr. Chamberlain’s Speeches, vol. 1, p. 345.

  91. Ibid, p. 89.

  92. Ibid, pp. 244, 246.

  93. Baring (Lord Cromer), Modern Egypt, vol. 1, p. 7; see footnote 2, where he says ‘I do not speak Arabic’.

  94. Ibid, vol. 2, p. 123.

  95. Ibid, p. 124.

  96. Ibid, pp. 132, 147, 151–4, 161.

  97. Keith McClelland and Sonya Rose, ‘Citizenship and Empire, 1867– 1928’, in Hall and Rose (eds), At Home with the Empire, p. 283.

  98. Eliza Riedi, ‘Women, Gender, and the Promotion of Empire: The Victoria League, 1901–1914’, Historical Journal, vol. 45, no. 3, September 2002, p. 578.

  99. Chandrika Kaul, ‘“You cannot govern by force alone”: W. H. Russell, The Times and the Great Rebellion’, in Marina Carter and Crispin Bates (eds), Mutiny at the Margins, vol. 3, Sage, London 2013, pp. 28–32; see also William Howard Russell’s diary, where he recounts some of the atrocities of the war in India: My Diary in India, in the Year 1858–9, Routledge, Warne, and Routledge, London 1860, esp. pp. 215ff.

  100. Charles Dickens, letter to Baroness Burdett-Coutts, October 1857, in The Letters of Charles Dickens, vol. 8, Clarendon Press, Oxford 2006, p. 459.

  101. At least according to the recollections of his son the writer André Germain: see his La bourgeoisie qui brûle. Propos d’un témoin, 1890–1914, Sun, Paris 1951, p. 28.

  102. Jean-Pierre Rioux, La France coloniale sans fard ni déni, André Versaille, Brussels 2011, pp. 20–21.

  103. Gilman, ‘L’empire colonial et la longue stagnation’, pp. 386– 9.

  104. Raoul Girardet, L’idée coloniale en France de 1871 à 1962, Pluriel, Paris 1972, pp. 53–7; Charles-Robert Ageron, L’anticolonialisme en France de 1871 à 1914, Presses Universitaires de France, Paris 1973, p. 8.

  105. Paul Leroy-Beaulieu, De la colonisation chez les peuples modernes, Guillaumin, Paris 1882 (2nd edition), pp. 91, 145.

  106. Ibid, p. 347.

>   107. Rey-Goldzeiguer, Le royaume arabe, p. 552, and Etemad, De l’utilité des empires, p. 183.

  108. Cited in Patrick Weil, Qu’est-ce qu’un Français?, Grasset, Paris 2002, p. 226.

  109. Ibid, pp. 228–32.

  110. Etemad, De l’utilité des empires, p. 184; see also Benjamin Stora, Les trois exils. Juifs d’Algérie, Stock, Paris 2006, p. 52.

  111. Jules Ferry, Speech of 28 July 1885, in 1885: le tournant colonial de la République. Jules Ferry contre Georges Clemenceau, introduction by Gilles Manceron, La Découverte/Poche, Paris 2007, p. 56.

  112. Jules Ferry, Discours et opinions, vol. V, ed. Paul Robiquet, Armand Colin, Paris 1898, p. 185.

  113. 1885: le tournant colonial de la République, pp. 104– 6.

  114. Ibid, pp. 41–2.

  115. Ibid, p. 77.

  116. Marie-Hélène Gilman, ‘L’empire colonial et la longue stagnation’, in Yves Breton, Albert Broder, and Michel Lutfalla (eds), La longue stagnation en France. L’autre dépression, 1873–1907, Economica, Paris 1997, p. 386.

  117. 1885: le tournant colonial de la République, p. 45.

  118. Ageron, L’anticolonialisme en France de 1871 à 1914, pp. 45–7.

  119. Girardet, L’idée coloniale en France de 1871 à 1962, pp. 63, 100.

  120. Ageron, L’anticolonialisme en France de 1871 à 1914, pp. 75–6.

  121. Paul d’Estournelles de Constant, La conquête de la Tunisie, Sfar, Paris 2002, p. 258 (first published 1891 as La politique française en Tunisie: Le Pro-tectorat et ses origines).

  122. Jean Jaurès, ‘Les compétitions coloniales’, La Petite République, 17 May 1896.

  123. Jean Jaurès, ‘En Algérie’, in Oeuvres de Jean Jaurès, vol. 6, Fayard, Paris 2001, p. 180, originally in La Petite République, 29 January 1898.

  124. Jean Jaurès, ‘La question juive en Algérie’, La Dépêche, 1 May 1895, cited in Winock, La France et les Juifs, p. 91.

  125. Girardet, L’idée coloniale en France de 1871 à 1962, p. 163.

  126. Vincent Duclert, Jaurès 1859–1914. La politique et la légende, Éditions Autrement, Paris 2013, p. 239.

  127. Lenin, ‘The International Socialist Congress in Stuttgart’, in Collected Works, vol. 13, pp. 76, 86.

  128. Girardet, L’idée coloniale en France de 1871 à 1962, pp. 92, 99, 104–5.

  129. Charles Péguy, L’Argent (suite), in Charles Péguy, Oeuvres en prose, 1909–1914, Bibliothèque de la Pléiade Gallimard, Paris 1961, p. 1,238.

  130. Henri Brunschwig, Mythes et réalités de l’impérialisme colonial français, 1871–1914, Colin, Paris 1960, p. 185.

  131. J.-C. Allain, ‘L’expansion française au Maroc de 1902 à 1912’, in Jean Bouvier and René Girault (eds), L’imperialisme français d’avant 1914, Mouton, Paris 1976, pp. 39, 44, 53.

  132. Jean Bouvier, ‘Les traits majeurs de l’impérialisme français avant 1914’, Le Mouvement Sociale, no. 86, January–March 1974, p. 9.

  133. Rioux, La France coloniale sans fard ni déni, p. 15.

  134. Jean Bouvier and René Girault (eds), L’imperialisme français d’avant 1914, Mouton, Paris 1976, p. 9.

  135. Bouvier, ‘Les traits majeurs de l’imperialisme français avant 1914’, pp. 20–22.

  136. Brocheux and Hémery, Indochine: la colonisation ambiguë, 1858–1954, p. 41.

  137. In any case the opium trade was used to defray some of the costs of colonization; see Chantal Descours-Gatin, Quand l’opium financait la colonisation en Indochine, L’Harmattan, Paris 1992, p. 9.

  138. Albert de Mun, Speech to the Chambre des Députés, 24 March 1884, in Discours, Tome 3, Poussielgue, Paris 1888–95, p. 194.

  139. Albert de Mun, Speech of 24 March 1884, in ibid; see esp. pp. 195–6, 202–3.

  140. See Gerald M. Berg, ‘Writing Ideology: Ranavalona, the Ancestral Bureaucrat’, History in Africa, vol. 22, 1995, pp. 73–92.

  141. 1885: le tournant colonial de la République, pp. 34–7.

  142. 1885: le tournant colonial de la République, pp. 60–62; see also Ferry, Discours et opinions, p. 189.

  143. Léon Blum, ‘Débat sur le budget des colonies à la Chambre des Députés, 9 juillet 1925’, in Débats parlementaires, Assemblée, Session Ordinaire (30 juin–12 juillet 1925), in Journal Officiel, p. 848.

  144. Michael G. Vann, ‘Building Colonial Whiteness on the Red River: Race, Power, and Urbanism in Paul Doumer’s Hanoi, 1897–1902’, Historical Reflections/Réflexions historiques, vol. 33, no. 2, Summer 2007, pp. 277–304, esp. pp. 280–81.

  145. Dino Costantini, Una malattia europea. Il ‘nuovo discorso coloniale’ francese e i suoi critici, Pisa University Press 2006, pp. 70–71.

  146. Girardet, L’idée coloniale en France de 1871 à 1962, pp. 135–6.

  147. Gustave Le Bon, La psychologie politique et la défense sociale, Flammarion, Paris 1910, pp. 227–8, 232, 241.

  148. Albert Sarraut, Grandeur et servitude coloniales, L’Harmattan, Paris 2012, p. 137; the book was originally published in 1931.

  149. Ibid, p. 90; see also the introduction by Nicola Cooper, pp. xxxv–xxxvi.

  150. Sarraut, Grandeur et servitude coloniales, p. 74.

  151. Girardet, L’idée coloniale en France de 1871 à 1962, p. 134.

  152. Herbert Vivian, ‘The French in Tunisia’, Contemporary Review, vol. 74, October 1898, p. 569.

  153. Daniel J. Rankin, ‘The Portuguese in East Africa’, Fortnightly Review, February 1890, no. 278, p. 161.

  154. David Motadel, ‘Islam and the European Empires’, Historical Journal, vol. 55, no. 3, September 2012, pp. 834, 836, 839.

  155. Margery Perham, Lugard: The Years of Adventure, 1858–1898, Collins, London 1956, p. 311.

  156. Eugène Étienne, Les compagnies de colonisation, Augustin Challamel, Paris 1897, p. 8.

  19. The First Global Crisis

  1. S. B. Saul, The Myth of the Great Depression, 1873–1896, Macmillan, London 1969, p. 55.

  2. Vidal, Dépression et retour de la prospérité, pp. 169ff.

  3. Landes, Unbound Prometheus, p. 231.

  4. Ibid, p. 233.

  5. Charles Feinstein, ‘New Estimates of Average Earnings in the United Kingdom, 1880– 1913’, Economic History Review, vol. 43, no. 4, November 1990, pp. 607, 612; Mary Mackinnon, ‘Living Standards, 1870–1914’, in Roderick Floud and Donald McCloskey (eds), The Economic History of Britain since 1870, vol. 2: 1860–1939, Cambridge University Press 1994, p. 290.

  6. See Peter Gourevitch’s useful summary in Politics in Hard Times: Comparative Responses to International Economic Crises, Cornell University Press 1986, pp. 70–77.

  7. Winch, Riches and Poverty, p. 165.

  8. O’Brien, ‘Do We Have a Typology for the Study of European Industrialization in the XIXth Century?’, p. 296.

  9. Arrighi, Adam Smith in Beijing, p. 137; see also David Washbrook, ‘South Asia, the World System, and World Capitalism’, Journal of Asian Studies, vol. 49, no. 3, August 1990, p. 481.

  10. Tony Smith, The Pattern of Imperialism: The United States, Great Britain, and the Late-Industrializing World since 1815, Cambridge University Press 1981, p. 37.

  11. Mira Wilkins, The History of Foreign Investment in the United States to 1914, Harvard University Press 1989, p. 141.

  12. See OECD report: http://www.keepeek.com/Digital-Asset-Management/oecd/governance/government-at-a-glance-2015/general-government-debt-per-capita-2009-2013-and-2014_gov_glance-2015-graph21-en#page1

  13. Wilkins, The History of Foreign Investment in the United States to 1914, p. 557.

  14. Ibid, p. 145.

  15. Ibid, p. 557.

  16. Ibid, pp. 625, 600.

  17. Rudolf Hilferding, Finance Capital: A Study of the Latest Phase of Capitalist Development, Routledge and Kegan Paul, London 1981, p. 322.

  18. Émile Becqué, L’internationalisation des capitaux. Étude économique, financière et politique, Imprimerie générale du Midi, Montpellier 1912, p. 173.

  19. Lehmann, The Roots of Mode
rn Japan, pp. 173–4.

  20. Jean-François Vidal, Dépression et retour à la prospérité. Les économies européennes à la fin du XIXe siècle, L’Harmattan, Paris 2000, pp. 9–10.

  21. ‘Commercial History and Review of 1879’, The Economist, 13 March 1880, in English Historical Documents, vol. 10: 1874–1914, ed. W. D. Handcock, Routledge, London 1996, p. 198.

  22. Charles P. Kindleberger, Manias, Panics and Crashes: A History of Financial Crises, 4th edition, Palgrave, London 2000, pp. 253–9.

  23. Larry Neal, ‘The Financial Crisis of 1825 and the Restructuring of the British Financial System’, Prepared for the 22nd Annual Economic Policy Conference at the Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis, 16–17 October 1997, p. 37: https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Larry_Neal/publication/5047144_The_financial_crisis_of_1825_and_the_restructuring_of_the_British_financial_system/links/5457bb330cf26d5090ab5057.pdf

  24. Hector Denis, La dépression économique et sociale et l’histoire des prix, Huysmans, Brussels 1895, pp. 2–4.

  25. C. P. Kindleberger, ‘The Rise of Free Trade in Western Europe, 1820–1875’, in Journal of Economic History, vol. 35, no. 1, March 1975, p. 49; on Romanian wheat see Hitchins, Rumania, p. 189; Chirot, Social Change in a Peripheral Society, p. 122; on Portugal see Clarence-Smith, The Third Portuguese Empire, 1825–1975, p. 81; on Sweden see Berend and Ránki, The European Periphery and Industrialization, 1780–1914, p. 31.

  26. ‘Commercial History and Review of 1880’, The Economist, 12 March 1881, in Handcock (ed.), English Historical Documents, vol. 10, p. 200.

  27. Kevin O’Rourke and Jeffrey G. Williamson, ‘Late Nineteenth-Century Anglo-American Factor-Price Convergence: Were Heckscher and Ohlin Right?’, Journal of Economic History, vol. 54, no. 4, December 1994, p. 900.

  28. Wilkins, The Emergence of Multinational Enterprise , p. 35.

  29. Barkin, The Controversy over German Industrialization, 1890–1902, p. 28.

  30. Yves Breton, ‘La perception de la “grande dépression” de la fin du XIXe siècle (1873–1896) par les économistes français. Analyses et perspectives’, Économies et sociétés, no. 8, 1993, pp. 210–11.

  31. Clément Juglar, Des crises commerciales et de leur retour périodique en France, en Angleterre et aux États-Unis, Guillaumin et Cie, Paris 1862, p. 1.