Piccolo, S. et al. 1996. Dorsoventral patterning in Xenopus: inhibition of ventral signals by direct binding of Chordin to BMP-4. Cell 86: 589–98
Pinto-Correa, C. 1997. The ovary of Eve: egg and sperm and preformationism. Chicago University Press, Chicago
Pletcher, S.D. et al. 2002. Genome-wide transcript profiles in aging and calorically restricted Drosophila melanogaster. Current Biology 30: 712–23
Posel, D. 2001. Race as common sense: racial classification in twentieth century South Africa. African Studies Review 44: 87–113
Posner, G. L. and J. Ware. 1986. Mengele: the complete story. Futura, London
Power, C. and S. Matthews. 1997. Origins of health inequalities in a national population sample. Lancet 350: 1584–9
Qu, S. et al. 1998. Mutations in mouse Aristaless-like4 cause Strong’s luxoid Polydactyly. Development. 125: 2711–21
Quance, E. 1977. Alexander Graham Bell, human inheritance, and the eugenics movement. Research Bulletin of the National Historic Parks and Sites Branch, Parks Canada. No. 62
Quigley, C.A. et al. 1992. Complete deletion of the androgen receptor gene: definition of the null phenotype of the androgen insensitivity syndrome and determination of carrier status. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 74: 932–3
Ramesar, R.S. et al. 1996. Mapping of the gene for cleidocranial dysplasia in the historical Cape Town (Arnold) kindred and evidence for locus homogeneity. Journal of Medical Genetics 33: 511–14
Ramirez-Solis et al. 1993. Hoxb-4 (Hox-2. 6) mutant mice show homeotic transformation of a cerivical rudiment and defects in the closure of the sternal rudiments. Cell 73: 279–94
Rana, B.K. et al. 1999. High polymorphism at the human melanocortin 1 receptor locus. Genetics 151: 1547–57
Rancourt et al. 1995. Genetic interaction between Hoxb-5 and Hoxb-6 is revealed by nonallelic noncomplementation. Genes and Development 9: 108–22
Reaume, A.G. et al. 1996. Motor neurons in Cu/Zn superoxide dismutase-deficient mice develop normally but exhibit enhanced cell death after axonal injury. Nature Genetics 13: 43–7
Reed, T.E. and J.V. Neel. 1959. Huntington’s chorea in Michigan. American Journal of Human Genetics 11: 107–635
Reeves, R.H. et al. 2001. Too much of a good thing: mechanisms of gene action in Down syndrome. Trends in Genetics 17: 83–241
Reichert, H. and A. Simeone. 2001. Developmental genetic evidence for a monophyletic origin of the bilaterian brain. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B 356: 1533–44
Reynolds, A.J. et al. 1999. Trans-gender induction of hair follicles. Nature 402: 46–7
Ricklefs, R.E. and C.E. Finch. 1995. Ageing: a natural history. Scientific American, N.Y.
Riddle, R.D et al. 1993. Sonic hedgehog mediates the Polarizing Activity of the ZPA. Cell 75: 1401–16
Robbins, L.S. et al. 1993. Pigmentation phenotypes of variant extension locus alleles result from point mutations that alter MSH receptor function. Cell 72: 827–34
Roberts, R.S. 1974. The making of a Rhodesian myth. Rhodesian History 5: 89–91
Robins, A.H. 1991. Biological perspectives on human pigmentation. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK
Rodriguez, J.M. 1870. Descripcion de un monstruo cuadruple, nacido en Durango el ano de 1860. Gaceta Medica de Mexico 5: 33–48
Roessler, E. et al. 1996. Mutations in the human sonic hedgehog gene cause holoprosencephaly. Nature Genetics 14: 357–60
Root, A. 1998. Editorial: does growth hormone have a role in the management of children with nongrowth hormone deficient short stature and intrauterine growth retardation? Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 83: 1067–9
Rose, M.R. 1984. Laboratory evolution of postponed senescence in Drosophila melanogaster. Evolution 38: 1004–10
Rose, M.R. 1991. Evolutionary biology of ageing. Oxford University Press, N.Y.
Rosen, D.R. et al. 1993. Mutations in Cu/Zn superoxide dismutase gene are associated with familial amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. Nature 362: 59–62
Rosenbaum, S. et al. 1985. A survey of heights and weights of adults in Great Britain Annals of Human Biology 12: 115–27
Rosenbloom, A.L. and J.G. Guevara-Aguirre. 1998. Lessons from the genetics of Laron syndrome. Trends in Endocrinology and Metabolism 9: 276–83
Rosenburg, N.A. et al. 2002. Genetic structure of human populations. Science 298: 2381–5
Rosenfeld, R.G. et al. 1994. Growth hormone (GH) insensitivity due to primary GH deficiency. Endocrine Reviews 15: 369–90
Rousseau, F. et al. 1994. Mutations in the gene encoding fibroblast growth factor receptor-3 in achondroplasia Nature 371: 252–4
Rousseau, F. et al. 1995. Stop codon FGFR3 mutations in thanatophoric dwarfism type 1. Nature Genetics 10: 11–12
Rubinsztein, D.C. 2002. Lessons from animal models of Huntington’s disease. Trends in Genetics 18: 202–9
Rudolph, K.L. et al. 1999. Longevity, stress response, and cancer in aging telomerase-deficient mice. Cell: 96: 701–12
Russell, A.J. et al. 1994. Mutation in the human gene for 3 alpha-hydroxys-teroid dehydrogenase type II leading to male pseudohermaphroditism without salt loss. Journal of Molecular Endocrinology 12: 225–37
Sadler, T.W. 2000. Langman’s medical embryology (8th ed.) Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, Philadelphia
Saegusa, H. et al. 1996. Targeted disruption of Hoxc-4 locus results in axial skeleton homeosis and malformation of the xiphoid process. Developmental Biology 174:55–64
Saint-Ange, M. 1830. Journal hebdomaidaire de médécine 6: 42–9
Sakai, Y. et al. 20001. The retinoic acid-inactivating enzyme CYP26 is essential for establishing an uneven distribution of retinoic acid along the ante-rio-posterior axis within the mouse embryo. Genes and Development 15: 213–25
Samaras, T. and H. Elrick. 1999. Height, body size and longevity. Acta Medica Okayama 53: 149–69
Samaras, T. et al. 1999. Height, health and growth hormone. Acta Paediatrica 88: 602–9
Sandberg, D.E. et al. 1994. Short stature: a psychosocial burden requiring growth hormone therapy? Pediatrics 94: 832–9
Sato, N. et al. 1999. Induction of the hair growth phase in postnatal mice by localized transient expression of sonic hedgehog. Journal of Clinical Investigation 104: 855–64
Saunders, J.W. 1948. The proximo-distal sequence of origin of the parts of the chick wing and the role of the ectoderm. Journal of Experimental Zoology 108: 363–403
Saunders, J.W. and M.T. Gasseling. 1968. Ectodermal-mesenchymal interactions in the origin of limb symmetry. in R. Fleischmajer and R.F. Billingham (eds). Epithelial-Mesenchymal interactions pp.78–97. Williams and Wilkins, Baltimore
Scarry, E. 2000. On beauty and being just. Duckworth, London
Schächter, F. et al. 1994. Genetic associations with human longevity at the APOE and ACE loci. Nature Genetics 6: 29–32
Schatz, F. 1901. Die Griechischen Götter und die Menschlichen Missgeburten. J. F. Bergmann Verlag, Wiesbaden (reprint 1969, Editions Rodopi, Amsterdam)
Schebesta, P. 1952. Die Negrito Asiens 3 vols. Vienna
Schnaas, G. 1974. El Perro Pelon: mito, fantasia y biologia. Gaceta medica de mexico 108: 393–400
Schnitzer, E. 1888. Emin Pasha in central Africa. Schweinfurth, G., Ratzel, F. Felkin, R.W. Hartlauer, G. (eds) Philip and Son. London
Schweinfurth, G. 1878. The heart of Africa (trans. E. E. Frewer). 3rd edition. Sampson Low, Marston, Searle & Rivington, London
Segrave, K. 1996. Baldness, a social history. McFarland & Co. Jefferson, NC, USA
Sémonin, O. et al. 2001. Identification of three novel mutations of the noggin gene in patients with fibrodysplasia ossificans progressiva. American Journal of Medical Genetics 102: 314–17
Serres, E. 1832. Recherches d’anatomie transcendante et pathologique. Théorie des formations et déformations organiques, appliquée á l’anatomie de Ritta-Christina, et de la duplicité monstrueuse. J.B. Balliére, Paris
Seward,
G.R. 1992. The Elephant Man. British Dental Association, London
Shriver, M.D. et al. 2003. Skin pigmentation, biogeographical ancestry and admixture mapping Human Genetics 112: 387–99
Sgrò, C. and L. Partridge. 1999. A delayed wave of death from reproduction in Drosophila. Science 286: 2521–4
Sharpe, P. 2001. Fish scale development: hair today, teeth and scales yesterday? Current Biology 11:R751–2
Sharpe, R.M. 1998. The roles of estrogen in the male. Trends in Endocrinology and Metabolism 9: 371–7
Shay, J.W. and W.E. Wright. 2000. Hayflick, his limit, and cellular ageing. Nature Reviews Molecular Cell Biology 1: 72–5
Shea, B.T and A.M. Gomez. 1988. Tooth scaling and evolutionary dwarfism: an investigation of allometry in human pygmies. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 77: 117–32
Shea, B.T. 1989. Heterochrony in human evolution: the case for neoteny reconsidered. Yearbook of Physical Anthropology 32: 69–101
Shea, B.T. and R.C. Bailey. 1986. Allometry and adaptation of body proportions and stature in African pygmies. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 100: 311–40
Shiels, P.G. et al. 1999. Analysis of telomere lengths in cloned sheep. Nature 399: 317
Shozu, M. et al. 1991. A new cause of female pseudohermaphroditism: placental aromatase deficiency. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 72: 560–6
Shubin, N.H. and P. Alberch. 1986. A morphogenetic approach to the organization of the tetrapod limb. Evolutionary Biology 20: 319–87
Shubin, N.H. et al. 1997. Fossils, genes and the evolution of animal limbs. Nature 388: 639–48
Sidow, A. et al. 1999. A novel member of the F-box/WD40 gene family, encoding dactylin, is disrupted in the mouse dactylaplasia mutant. Nature Genetics 23: 104–7
Siebold, von C.T. 1878. Die Haarige familie von Ambras. Archiv für Anthropolgie 10: 253–60
Silventoinen, K. et al. 1999. Social background, adult body-height and health. International Journal of Epidemiology 28: 911–18
Siminoski, K. and J. Bain. 1993. The relationship among height, penile length and foot size. Annals of Sex Research 6: 231–5
Sinclair, A.H. et al. 1990. A gene from the human sex-determining region encodes a protein with homology to a conserved DNA-binding motif. Nature 346: 240–4
Slijper, E.J. 1942. Biologic-anatomical investigations on the bipedal gait and upright posture in mammals, with special reference to a little goat, born without forelegs. I., II. Proceedings Koninklijke Nederlandse Academie van Wetenschap 45: 288–95; 407–15
Smith, E.P. et al. 1994. Estrogen resistance caused by a mutation in the estrogen-receptor gene in a man. New England Journal of Medicine 331: 1056–61
Smith, R. et al. 1998. Melanocortin 1 receptor variants in an Irish population. Journal of Investigative Dermatology 111: 119–22
Sordino, P. et al. 1995. Hox gene expression in teleost fins and the origin of vertebrate digits. Nature 375: 678–81
Sornson, M.W. et al. 1996. Pituitary lineage determination by the Prophet of Pit-1 homeodomain factor defective in Ames dwarfism. Nature. 384: 327–32
Sparks, C.S. and R.L. Jantz. 2002. A reassessment of human cranial plasticity: Boas revisited. Proceeding of the National Academy of Sciences USA 99: 14636–9
Spemann, H. and H. Mangold 1924. Über die induktion von Embryonalanlagen durch Implantation artfremder Organisatoren. Archiv für miikroskopische Anatomie und Entwicklungsmechanik 100: 599–638
Spencer, R. 2000a. Theoretical and analytical embryology of conjoined twins: Part 1: Embryogenesis. Clinical Anatomy 13: 36–53
Spencer, R. 2000b. Theoretical and analytical embryology of conjoined twins: Part 2: Adjustments to union. Clinical Anatomy 13: 97–20
Spencer, R. 2001. Theoretical and analytical embryology of conjoined twins: Part 3: External, internal (fetuses in fetu and teratomas), and detached (Acardiacs). Clinical Anatomy 14: 428–44
Steinman, G. 2001a. Mechanisms of twinning. I. Effect of environmental diversity on genetic expression in monozygotic multifetal pregnancies. The Journal of Reproductive Medicine 46: 467–72
Steinman, G. 2001b. Laterality and intercellular bonding in monozygotic twinning. The Journal of Reproductive Medicine. 46: 473–9
Stephens, J.C. et al. 2001. Haplotype variation and linkage disequilibrium in 313 human genes. Science 293: 489–93
Stephens, T.D. et al. 2000. Mechanism of action in thalidomide teratogenesis. Biochemical Pharmacology 59: 1489–99
Stevens, G. et al. 1997. Oculocutaneous albinism (OCA2) in sub-Saharan Africa: distribution of the common 2.7-kb P gene deletion mutation. Human Genetics 99: 523–7
Stratakis, C.A. et al. 1998. The aromatase excess syndrome is associated with feminization of both sexes and autosomal dominant transmission of aberrant P450 aromatase gene transcription. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 83: 1348–57
Sturm, R.A. et al. 1998. Human pigmentation genetics: the difference is only skin deep. Trends in Genetics 20: 712–21
Subramaniam, J.R. et al. 2002. Mutant SOD1 causes motor neuron disease independent of copper chaperone-mediated copper loading. Nature Neuroscience 5: 301–7
Sun, X. et al. 2002. Functions of FGF signalling from the apical ectodermal ridge in limb development. Nature 418: 501–8
Sutton, J.B. 1890. Evolution and disease. Walter Scott, London
Szabo, G. et al. 1969. Racial differences in the fate of the melanosomes. Nature 222: 1081–2
Tabin, C. 1998. A developmental model for thalidomide defects. Nature 396: 322–3
Tabin, C. 1999. Developmental model for thalidomide action – reply. Nature 400: 420
Takahashi, E. Secular trend in milk consumption and growth in Japan. Human Biology 56: 427–37
Ta-Mei, W. et al. 1982. Craniopagus parasiticus: a case report of a parasitic head protruding from the right side of the face. British Journal of Plastic Surgery 35: 304–11
Tang, D.G. et al. 2001. Lack of replicative senesence in cultured rat oligodendrocyte precusor cells. Science 291: 868–71
Tanner, J.M. 1981. A history of the study of human growth. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK
Tanner, J.M. 1984. Foetus into man. (Revised ed.) Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Mass.
Tassabehji, M. et al. 1992. Waardenburg’s syndrome patients have mutations in the human homologue of the Pax-3 paired box gene. Nature 355:635–6
Tatsumi, K. et al. 1992. Cretinism with combined hormone deficiency caused by a mutation in the pit-1 gene. Nature Genetics 1: 56–8
Taussig, H.B. 1988. Evolutionary origin of cardiac malformations. Journal of the American College of Cardiology 12: 1079–86
Tavormina, PL. et al. 1995. Thanatophoric dysplasia (types I and II) caused by distinct mutations in fibroblast growth factor receptor 3. Nature Genetics 9: 321–8
Thadini, K.I. 1934. The toothless men of Sind. Journal of Heredity 26: 65–6
Thangaraj, K. 2003. Genetic affinities of the Andaman Islanders, a vanishing human populations. Current Biology 13: 86–93
Thiery, M. and H. Houtzager. 1997. Der Vrouwen Vrouwlijcheit. Erasmus, Rotterdam
Thompson, A.A. and L.T Nguyen. 2000. Amegakaryocytic thrombocytopenia and radio-ulnar synostosis are associated with HOXA11 mutation. Nature Genetics 26: 397–8
Thompson, C.J.S. 1930 (1994) The history and lore of freaks. Senate. London
Thornhill, R. and S.W. Gangestad 1999. Facial attractiveness. Trends in Cognitive Science 3: 452–60
Tibbies, J.A.R. and M.M. Cohen. 1986. The Proteus syndrome: the Elephant Man diagnosed. British Medical Journal 293: 683–5
Tickle, C. et al. 1975. Positional signalling and specification of digits in chick limb morphogenesis. Nature 20: 199–202
Tietze-Conrat, E. 1957. Dwarfs and jesters in art. Phaidon. London
Tjalma, R.A. 1966. Canine bone sarcoma: estimation of relative risk as function of body size. Journal of the National Cancer Intitute. 36: 1137–50
Toda, K.
et al. 1972. Racial differences in melanosomes. Nature New Biology 236: 143–5
Ton, C.T. et al. 1991. Positional cloning and characterization of a Paired Box- and Homeobox-containing gene from the Aniridia region. Cell 67: 1059–74
Touchefeu-Meynier, O. 1992. Kyklops, Kyklopes. text pp. 154–9; plates pp.69–75 in Lexicon iconographicum mythologiae classicae: VI: 1 (text); 2 (plates)
Townsend, P. et al. 1992. Inequalities in health. Penguin Books, Harmondsworth, UK
Trotter, M. 1928. Hair growth and shaving. Anatomical Record 37: 373–9
Tsukui, T. et al. 1999. Multiple left-right asymmetry defects in Shh-/-mutant mice unveil a convergence of the Shh and retinoic acid pathways in the control of Lefty-1. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA. 96: 11376–81
Twitty, V.C. 1966. Of scientists and salamanders. W. H. Freeman and Co., San Francisco
Twitty, V.C. and J.L. Schwind. 1931. The growth of eyes and limbs transplanted heteroplastically between two species of Amblystoma (sic) Journal of Experimental Zoology 59: 61–86
Tyson, E. 1699 (1966). A philological essay concerning the pygmies of the ancients. B. Windle (ed.). David Nutt, London
Unthan, C.H. 1935. The armless fiddler: a pediscript. George Allen & Unwin, London
Valenzano, M. et al. 1999. Sirenomelia. Pathological features, antenatal ultrasonographic clues, and a review of current embryogenic theories. Human Reproductive Update 5: 82–6
Valverde, P. et al. 1995. Variants of the melanocyte stimulating hormone receptor gene are associated with red hair and fair skin in humans. Nature Genetics 11: 328–30
Vassart, G. 2000. TSH receptor mutations and diseases Ch. 16a. The Thyroid and Its Diseases, http://www.thyroidmanager.org
Vieille-Grosjean, I. et al. 1997. Branchial Hox gene expression and human craniofaciall development. Developmental Biology 183: 4960
Viljoen, D.L. and P. Beighton. 1984. The split-hand and split-foot anomaly in a central African Negro population. American Journal of Medical Genetics 19: 545–52
Viljoen, D.L. and S.H. Kidson. 1990. Mirror-polydactlyly – pathogenesis based on a morphogen gradient theory. American Journal of Medical Genetics 35: 22935
Mutants Page 35