14. Frank A. Vanderlip, Century (August 1898), cited in Sen. Doc. 62, pt. 1, 55th Cong., 3rd sess., 564.
15. Thomas F. Gossett, Race: The History of an Idea in America (New York: Schocken, 1970), 312.
16. Keene, Emperor of Japan, 580.
17. For a complete discussion of Roosevelt’s racial beliefs and how they affected his policies in Asia, see James Bradley, The Imperial Cruise (Boston: Little, Brown, 2009).
18. Richard Hofstadter, Social Darwinism in American Thought (New York: George Braziller, 1959), 175.
19. Gossett, Race, 329.
20. Terence V. Powderly, “Exclude Anarchist and Chinaman!,” Collier’s Weekly 28 (December 14, 1901).
21. Keene, Emperor of Japan, 611.
22. Theodore Roosevelt to William Woodville Rockhill, August 29, 1905, in Morison and Blum, The Letters of Theodore Roosevelt, 4: 1327.
23. Theodore Roosevelt to David Bowman Schneder, June 19, 1905, in ibid., 4: 1240–41.
24. Address of Theodore Roosevelt to the Naval War College, Newport, Rhode Island, June 2, 1897, in Dyer, Theodore Roosevelt and the Idea of Race, 42.
25. Ibid., 136.
26. Theodore Roosevelt, annual message to Congress, December 6, 1904, in FRUS, 41.
27. Theodore Roosevelt, Theodore Roosevelt: An Autobiography (New York: Macmillan, 1913), 545.
28. Also known as King Kojong, King Gojong, and Emperor Kojong, he ruled from 1863 to 1907. Before 1897 he was King Gojong and after 1897 he was Emperor Gojong. Although he was King Gojong in 1882, I use Emperor Gojong for continuity.
29. Yur-Bok Lee and Wayne Patterson, eds., One Hundred Years of Korean-American Relations, 1882–1982 (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1986), 20.
30. Frederick A. McKenzie, Korea’s Fight for Freedom (New York: Fleming H. Revell, 1920), 77–78.
31. Theodore Roosevelt to Hermann Speck von Sternburg, August 28, 1900, in Morison and Blum, The Letters of Theodore Roosevelt, 2: 1394.
32. Theodore Roosevelt to Sternburg, February 6, 1904, in Howard K. Beale, Theodore Roosevelt and the Rise of America to World Power (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1956), 291.
33. Theodore Roosevelt to Theodore Roosevelt Jr., February 10, 1904, in Morison and Blum, The Letters of Theodore Roosevelt, 4: 724.
34. San Francisco Call, Sunday, March 13, 1904, cited in Matsumura, Baron Kaneko and the Russo-Japanese War, 23.
35. Raymond A. Esthus, Theodore Roosevelt and Japan (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1966), 40.
36. Matsumura, Baron Kaneko and the Russo-Japanese War, 52.
37. Esthus, Theodore Roosevelt and Japan, 41.
38. Matsumura, Baron Kaneko and the Russo-Japanese War, 53.
39. Julian Street, “A Japanese Statesman’s Recollections of Roosevelt,” New York Times, July 31, 1921.
40. Matsumura, Baron Kaneko and the Russo-Japanese War, 54.
41. Ibid., 132.
42. Ibid., 91–92. Since 1871, when Meiji first allowed Christians to proselytize in Japan, American missionaries had worked in that country, but Japan’s population was a fraction of China’s, and it is estimated that there was never more than 1 percent of the Japanese population converted to Christianity.
43. The Harvard Club of Japan reprinted the Boston Herald’s version of Kaneko’s words; see Matsumura, Baron Kaneko and the Russo-Japanese War, 92.
44. Matsumura, Baron Kaneko and the Russo-Japanese War, 55.
45. Theodore Roosevelt to Hay, July 26, 1904, in Morison and Blum, The Letters of Theodore Roosevelt, 4: 865.
46. Theodore Roosevelt to Theodore Roosevelt Jr., March 5, 1904, cited in Beale, Theodore Roosevelt and the Rise of America to World Power, 269.
47. Matsumura, Baron Kaneko and the Russo-Japanese War, 286.
48. Keene, Emperor of Japan, 612.
49. Theodore Roosevelt to Taft, April 20, 1905, in Morison and Blum, The Letters of Theodore Roosevelt, 4: 1162.
50. Shumpei Okamoto, The Japanese Oligarchy and the Russo-Japanese War (New York: Columbia University Press, 1970), 119.
51. Theodore Roosevelt to Henry Cabot Lodge, June 16, 1905, in Morison and Blum, The Letters of Theodore Roosevelt, 4: 1229, 1232.
52. Beale, Theodore Roosevelt and the Rise of America to World Power, 334.
53. Street, “A Japanese Statesman’s Recollection of Roosevelt.”
54. Matsumura, Baron Kaneko and the Russo-Japanese War, 382.
55. Ibid., 383.
56. Kaneko, “A ‘Japanese Monroe Doctrine’ and Manchuria.”
57. Ibid.
58. For more information, see Bradley, The Imperial Cruise.
59. Tyler Dennett, “President Roosevelt’s Secret Pact with Japan,” Current History 21, no. 1 (October 1924); http://www.icasinc.org/history/katsura.html.
60. Ibid.
61. It wasn’t until nineteen years later—after Roosevelt’s death—that a researcher came across Taft’s top secret summary of his meeting with Katsura. For protection, Taft had composed his memo with no direct quotes.
62. Theodore Roosevelt to Taft, telegram, July 31, 1905, in Morison and Blum, The Letters of Theodore Roosevelt, 4: 1293.
63. “Japan’s Policy Abroad,” New York Times, July 30, 1905.
64. McKenzie, Korea’s Fight for Freedom, 77–78.
65. He was given the Nobel Peace Prize for bringing Russia and Japan together, not for actually negotiating the treaty.
66. Matsumura, Baron Kaneko and the Russo-Japanese War, 450.
67. Kaneko said, “I intend to report this very important and valuable piece of advice to our government’s leaders on my return to Japan. And after the war I hope that our policy in Asia will be executed and managed along these lines, and that Your Excellency will consent to this,” in ibid., 451.
68. Ibid., 450–51.
69. Homer B. Hulbert, The Passing of Korea (New York: Doubleday, Page, 1906), 223–24.
70. Ibid., 221.
71. Homer Hulbert, letter to the editor of the New York Times, reprinted in The Fatherland, January 19, 1916; http://www.homerhulbert.com/Fatherland_Roosevelt_1916.pdf.
72. Woonsang Choi, The Fall of the Hermit Kingdom (Dobbs Ferry, NY: Oceana, 1967), 47.
73. Un-yon Kim, Nikkan Heigo (Tokyo: Dodo Shuppan, 1996), 195, as cited in Keene, Emperor of Japan, 641.
74. Hulbert, The Passing of Korea, 9.
75. Jongsuk Chay, Diplomacy of Asymmetry: Korean-American Relations to 1910 (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1990), 146.
76. Hulbert, letter to the editor of the New York Times.
77. Tyler Dennett, Roosevelt and the Russo-Japanese War (New York: Doubleday, Page, 1925), 304.
78. Ibid., 307.
79. Herbert Croly, Willard Straight (New York: Macmillan, 1924), 188.
80. Theodore Roosevelt, America and the World War (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1915), 29.
81. Roosevelt, Theodore Roosevelt, 545.
82. Hulbert, letter to the editor of the New York Times. The statue in downtown Seoul mentioned in the introduction honors Homer Hulbert.
83. Beale, Theodore Roosevelt and the Rise of America to World Power, 322.
84. Esthus, Theodore Roosevelt and Japan, 299.
CHAPTER 4: THE NOBLE CHINESE PEASANT
1. Address given by Luce at United Nations service in tribute to China, December 13, 1942, in box 48, United China Relief, United Service to China Records, Seeley G. Mudd Manuscript Library, Princeton University (hereafter referred to as UCR-USC Records), as cited in T. Christopher Jespersen, American Images of China, 1931–1949 (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1999), 37.
2. Soong was “the first [Chinese] that has ever submitted to the ordinance of Christian baptism in North Carolina,” according to the Wilmington Star, November 7, 1880.
3. Charlie had two other sons born slightly later: T. L. Soong and T. A. Soong. Both became bankers and were not central to the Soong-Chiang penetration of the United States.
4. Edgar Snow,
Journey to the Beginning (New York: Random House, 1958), 88–89.
5. Ibid.
6. Laura Tyson Li, Madame Chiang Kai-shek (New York: Atlantic Monthly Press, 2006), 39.
7. Warren I. Cohen, America’s Response to China: An Interpretative History of Sino-American Relations (New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1971), 101.
8. Chiang speech at Omei College, September 1935, as cited in Jonathan Fenby, Chiang Kai-shek: China’s Generalissimo and the Nation He Lost (New York: Carroll and Graf, 2003), 225.
9. Proceedings of Conference on Chiang Kai-shek and Modern China, vol. 3, Chiang Kai-shek and China’s Modernization (Taipei: China Cultural Service, 1987), 151.
10. Jonathan Fenby, The Penguin History of Modern China: The Fall and Rise of a Great Power, 1850–2008 (New York: Penguin, 2008), 295.
11. Fenby, Chiang Kai-shek, 226.
12. Chieh-ju Ch’en, Chiang Kai-shek’s Secret Past, ed. Lloyd E. Eastman (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1993), 155.
13. My discussion of Chiang Kai-shek and Mao Zedong is relatively narrow, focused on how and why the Chinese people granted Mao Zedong the Mandate of Heaven. Both men had many faults, both men caused and then covered up massive famines that killed millions, both used terror and torture to discipline the populace, and each was single-minded in his belief that he was right while others were wrong. But one of them captured the Mandate, and I try to explain why.
14. Edgar Snow, Red Star Over China (New York: Random House, 1938), 133.
15. Ibid., 138.
16. Ibid., 119.
17. Maurice Meisner, Mao Zedong: A Political and Intellectual Portrait (Malden, MA: Polity Press, 2007), 32.
18. R. H. Tawney, Land and Labour in China (London: George Allen and Unwin, 1932), 77.
19. Meisner, Mao Zedong, 45.
20. Philip Short, Mao: A Life (New York: Henry Holt, 2000), 301–2.
21. Edgar Ansel Mowrer, Mowrer in China (Harmondsworth, UK: Penguin, 1938), 80–81.
22. Sterling Seagrave, The Soong Dynasty (New York: Harper and Row), 261.
23. Service, Lost Chance in China, 79.
24. FBI memorandum to the director, January 9, 1943, quoted in Fenby, Chiang Kai-shek, 164.
25. Chiang Kai-shek, China’s Destiny and Chinese Economic Theory (New York: Roy Publishers, 1947), 118.
26. Seagrave, The Soong Dynasty, 284.
27. Ibid., 411.
28. Fenby, Chiang Kai-shek, 166.
29. Jung Chang, Madame Sun Yat-sen (London: Penguin, 1986), 66.
30. Snow, Journey to the Beginning, 85.
31. Lancelot Foster, “The Generalissimo and Madame Chiang Kai-shek,” Hibbert Journal (October 1937): 100, as cited in Jespersen, American Images of China, 35.
32. Jespersen, American Images of China, 85.
33. Snow, Journey to the Beginning, 89–90.
34. Guangqiu Xu, War Wings: The United States and Chinese Military Aviation, 1929–1949 (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 2001), 89.
35. Milwaukee Sentinel, October 24, 1930.
36. Ibid.
37. Li, Madame Chiang Kai-shek, 97.
38. Ibid.
39. Jessup, The Ideas of Henry Luce, 380.
40. W. A. Swanberg, Luce and His Empire (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1972), 142.
41. Ibid., 96.
42. Jespersen, American Images of China, 35.
43. Theodore White, In Search of History (New York: Harper and Row, 1978), 207.
44. “The New China,” Fortune, April 1941, 94.
45. David Halberstam, The Powers That Be (New York: Knopf, 1975), 49.
46. Swanberg, Luce and His Empire, 258.
47. Address given by Luce at United Nations service in tribute to China.
48. Raymond Fielding, The March of Time, 1935–1951 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1977), 134.
49. “Foreign News: Progress,” Time, October 4, 1937, 19.
50. “Man and Wife of the Year,” Time, January 3, 1938.
51. “The Army Nobody Knows,” Time, June 16, 1941, 23–24.
52. “China: Chiang Dares,” Time, November 9, 1936; “The Finance Minister of the Republic of China,” Fortune, June 1933.
53. Pearl Buck, The Good Earth (New York: John Day, 1931). The novel was published on March 2, 1931.
54. Paul Hutchinson, “Breeder of Life,” Christian Century 48 (May 20, 1931): 683.
55. “Japan: Fissiparous Tendencies,” Time, September 5, 1932.
56. George H. Blakeslee, “The Japanese Monroe Doctrine,” Foreign Affairs 11, no. 4 (July 1933): 671–81.
57. Lieutenant General Sadao Araki, quoted in “Japan: Fissiparous Tendencies,” Time.
58. Robert J. C. Butow, Tojo and the Coming of the War (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1961), 106–7.
59. Fenby, Chiang Kai-shek, 201.
60. Kaneko, “A ‘Japanese Monroe Doctrine’ and Manchuria.”
61. Kai Bird, The Color of Truth (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1998), 23.
62. David F. Schmitz, Henry L. Stimson: The First Wise Man (Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield, 2000).
63. Johnson to Hornbeck, June 1, 1933, quoted in Dorothy Borg, The United States and the Far Eastern Crisis of 1933–1938 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1964), 44. Johnson was a minister at this point and later became ambassador, but because he held a number of titles, I’ve simplified here.
64. Stimson diary, November 7 and November 19, 1931, Henry L. Stimson diaries, Sterling Library, Yale University, as cited in Schmitz, Henry L. Stimson, 106–7.
65. Schmitz, Henry L. Stimson, 2–3.
66. Stimson to Ford, April 3, 1931, cited in ibid., 19.
67. Stimson diary, December 6, 1931, as cited in ibid., 107.
68. Harvey Bundy, oral history, Columbia University Oral History Project, as cited in ibid.
69. Cohen, America’s Response to China, 134.
70. Quoted in the North China Herald, November 3, 1931.
71. Fenby, Chiang Kai-shek, 203.
72. Greg Grandin, Empire’s Workshop: Latin America, the United States, and the Rise of the New Imperialism (New York: Henry Holt, 2006), 3.
73. Henry L. Stimson and McGeorge Bundy, On Active Service in Peace and War (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1948), 182.
74. Stimson diary, January 26, 1932, as cited in Schmitz, Henry L. Stimson, 110.
75. Memo of conversation, May 24, 1932, Papers of Nelson T. Johnson, Library of Congress, as cited in Cohen, America’s Response to China, 134.
76. Acting secretary of state telegram to the consul general at Shanghai (Cunningham), March 29, 1932, FRUS, 3: 643.
77. Castle to Consul General Cunningham, April 19, 1932, ibid., 3: 702.
78. Memorandum prepared by Hamilton, “American Aviation Training Mission in China,” June 1, 1932, as cited in William Matthew Leary, The Dragon’s Wings: The China National Aviation Corporation and the Development of Commercial Aviation in China (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1976), 62.
79. Grew to the secretary of state, January 16, 1933, FRUS, 3: 94–95.
80. Buck, China As I See It, 77, 78, 80, 83.
81. Ibid., 17.
CHAPTER 5: THE CHINA LOBBY
1. Merle Miller, Plain Speaking: An Oral Biography of Harry S. Truman (New York: Berkley, 1974), 288–89.
2. One child, Franklin, born between James and Elliott, had died in infancy.
3. Jan Pottker, Sara and Eleanor (New York: St. Martin’s, 2004), 83.
4. Stimson diary, November 9, 1932, as cited in Stimson and Bundy, On Active Service, 288–89.
5. Stimson diary, December 22, 23, and 24, 1932, as cited in Schmitz, Henry L. Stimson, 113.
6. Stimson diary, January 9, 1933; Stimson, “Memorandum of Conversation with Franklin D. Roosevelt,” January 9, 1933, as cited in ibid.
7. Moley, After Seven Years, 95.
8. Stimson’s memorandum of his conversation with Roosevelt, January 9, 1933, box 170, folder 20, Stimson Papers, Yale Uni
versity Library, as cited in Robert Smith Thompson, A Time for War: Franklin D. Roosevelt and the Path to Pearl Harbor (New York: Prentice Hall, 1991), 26.
9. Mao Zedong, “Report on an Investigation of the Peasant Movement in Hunan” (March 1927); https://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/mao/selected-works/volume-1/mswv1_2.htm.
10. Ibid.
11. Ibid.
12. Edgar Snow, “China’s Fighting Generalissimo,” Foreign Affairs 16, no. 4 (July 1938): 616.
13. Hung-mao Tien, Government and Politics in Kuomintang China, 1927–1937, vol. 53 (Palo Alto, CA: Stanford University Press, 1972), 84.
14. John King Fairbank, The United States and China (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1976), 246.
15. Snow, “China’s Fighting Generalissimo,” 624–25.
16. Mao Zedong, Mao’s Road to Power: Revolutionary Writings, 1912–1949, ed. Stuart Schram (Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe, 1992), 1: 552.
17. Fairbank, The United States and China, 292.
18. Zedong, Mao’s Road to Power, 1: 552.
19. Mao Zedong, On Guerrilla Warfare, trans. Samuel B. Griffith II (Champaign: University of Illinois Press, 2000), 92.
20. Sun Tzu, The Art of War; http://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/sun-tzu/works/art-of-war/ch01.htm.
21. Alexander V. Pantsov with Steven I. Levine, Mao: The Real Story (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2012), 222.
22. Snow, Red Star Over China, 174.
23. Louise Chipley Slavicek, Mao Zedong (New York: Infobase, 2009), 62.
24. Jerome Ch’en, Mao and the Chinese Revolution (New York: Oxford University Press, 1965), 156.
25. Peter Fleming, One’s Company (London: Jonathan Cape, 1950), 176.
26. Barbara W. Tuchman, Stilwell and the American Experience in China, 1911–1945 (New York: Macmillan, 1970), 109.
27. Snow, Red Star Over China, 109.
28. Michael Schaller, The U.S. Crusade in China, 1938–1945 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1979), 9.
29. Ibid.
30. White, In Search of History, 116.
31. The speech was reprinted in “Dr. Soong Stresses Our Link with China,” New York Times, May 18, 1933.
32. “The Finance Minister of the Republic of China,” Fortune.
33. Cohen, America’s Response to China, 135.
The China Mirage Page 36