Triumph of the City: How Our Greatest Invention Made Us Richer, Smarter, Greener, Healthier and Happier

by Edward Glaeser

  190 Harris County . . . cushioned the drop: U.S. Census Bureau, Manufacturing, Mining and Construction Statistics, Residential Building Permits, www.census.gov/const/www/permitsindex.html.

  190 From 1996 to 2006 . . . least supply-constrained cities: Glaeser et al., “Housing Supply and Housing Bubbles.”

  190 In the boom of the 1980s . . . in the elastic places: Ibid.

  190 Texas builders . . . $75 a square foot: Gyourko and Saiz, “Construction Costs.”

  190 Texas and California... more than 1,600 square feet of land: U.S. Census Bureau, State and County Quickfacts, http://quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/states; and U.S. Census Bureau, International Database, World Population Summary, www.census.gov/ipc/www/idb/worldpopinfo.php.

  190 America’s abundance of land . . . physical costs of construction: Gyourko and Saiz, “Construction Costs.”

  191 construction costs are . . . more expensive in Los Angeles: U.S. Census Bureau, American Community Survey, 2006-2007 Data Profile for the City of Houston and the City of Los Angeles, generated using American FactFinder; and Gyourko and Saiz, “Construction Costs.”

  191 In Harris County ... and 2 people per acre respectively: Haines, “Historical, Demographic, Economic, and Social Data: The United States, 1790-2002”; and U.S. Census Bureau, American Community Survey, 2008 Data Profile for Harris County, Texas, Westchester County, New York, and Santa Clara County, California, generated using American FactFinder.

  191 natural barriers to building... help explain the differences: Saiz, “Geographic Determinants.”

  191 Together with Bryce Ward and Jenny Schuetz . . . multiunit developments: Glaeser et al., “Regulation and the Rise in Housing Prices.”

  192 founded by two real estate developers: Haley, Sam Houston.

  192 fresh water and invigorating ocean breezes: Schadewald, “Salute to the Allen Brothers.”

  194 the $15 billion Big Dig . . . drive to Logan: Stern, “Boston’s Big Dig Wraps Up.”

  194 More than 85 percent . . . detached dwellings own them: U.S. Census Bureau, U.S. Census 2000, Data Profile for the United States, Summary File 3, generated using American FactFinder.

  194 Homes depreciate . . . their important asset: Shilling et al.,“Measuring Depreciation.”

  195 In Manhattan, 76 percent of housing units are rentals: U.S. Census Bureau, American Community Survey, 2008 Data Profile for New York County (Manhattan), generated using American FactFinder.

  195 Big-city schools . . . suburban school districts: Loveless, “How Well Are American Students Learning?”

  196 decrease in the size of the home mortgage interest deduction: Report of the President’s Advisory Panel on Federal Tax Reform.

  CHAPTER 8: IS THERE ANYTHING GREENER THAN BLACKTOP?

  199 “fitly procure our food from the stream”: Thoreau, I to Myself, 52.

  199 “the flames spread with rapidity”: Ibid., 52.

  199 “I have set fire to the forest”: Ibid., 54.

  199 a “dammed rascal” and a “flibbertigibbet”: Ibid., 52; and Thoreau, Journal, vol. 2, 25.

  200 “seldom thanked colleagues for their services”: Thoreau, Walden and Resistance.

  201 clustering together in high-rises and walking to work: Jacobs, Death and Life, Random House; and David Owen, Green Metropolis.

  201 ecofriendly households . . . a once beautiful landscape: Seuss, Lorax.

  202 “detests the town and yearns for the sacred grove”: Horace, Satires and Epistles, 283.

  202 Wordsworth, Coleridge, Keats, Shelley: For example, in Ferguson et al., Norton Anthology of Poetry: Wordsworth, “I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud,” p. 801; Coleridge, “Frost at Midnight,” pp. 810-12; Keats, “Bright Star,” p. 940; and Shelley, “Mont Blanc,” pp. 866-70.

  202 “go to nature in all singleness of heart”: Ruskin, Works, vol. 3, 624.

  202 an early advocate of town planning: Ruskin, Genius, 1997, 353.

  202 “from any part of the city... a few minutes walk” Ruskin, Genius, 353.

  202 “belt of beautiful garden and orchard”: Ibid.

  203 giving up a decent meal for a “sight of the far horizon”: bid.

  203 more than 3 million are recreational second homes: U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development and U.S. Census Bureau, Current Housing Reports, American Housing Survey for the United States: 2007, H150/07, Sept. 2008, www.census.gov/prod/2008pubs/h150-07.pdf, table 1A-1.

  203 Ebenezer Howard . . . made Ruskin’s vision concrete: It was originally published under the title Tomorrow: A Peaceful Path to Real Reform.

  203 the Green Belt is hardly within walking distance: Estimated using Journey Planner on www.tfl.gov.uk/tube.

  203 Olmsted specialized in bringing bucolic vistas: Rybczynski, Clearing in the Distance.

  205 five new buildings opened that soared above 849 feet: Empire State Building, 1931; Chrysler Building, 1930; American International Building, 1932; Trump Building, 1930; and GE Building, 1933. Emporis.com, www.emporis.com/en/wm/ci/bu/?id=101028.

  205 tallest skyscraper in Western Europe today: The tallest building in Western Europe, at about 849 feet, is Commerzbank Tower, in Frankfurt, Germany. Emporis.com, www.emporis.com/en/bu/sk/st/tp/ct/?id=100001.

  205 that tall for another thirty-six years: The Chase Tower, in Chicago, 849 feet, was built in 1969. Emporis.com, www.emporis.com/en/bu/sk/st/tp/wo.

  205 Global temperatures have been rising continuously: Archer and Rahmstorf, Climate Crisis, 3, 41.

  206 carbon inventory of new housing: Glaeser and Kahn, “Greenness of Cities.” An earlier version of this analysis appeared in Glaeser, “Green Cities, Brown Suburbs.”

  206 In 2006, the United States produced . . . emitted by Europe and Latin America: U.S. Energy Information Administration, International Energy Annual 2006, H. lco2 World Carbon Dioxide Emissions from the Consumption and Flaring of Fossil Fuels, 1980-2006,’” www.eia.doe.gov/pub/international/iealf/tablehlco2.xls.

  206 Together, homes and cars ... our motor vehicles: Glaeser and Kahn, “Greenness of Cities.”

  207 Using a gallon of gas . . . in a city or a suburb: Ibid.

  207 area density and distance to the city center: Ibid.

  207 average household . . . 687 gallons of gas per year: Ibid.

  207 gas consumption per family per year declines by 106 gallons: Ibid.

  207 to deliver 2.6 billion trips to its riders: Ridership data from MTA, “The MTA Network,” www.mta.info/mta/network.htm; fuel information from Kennedy, “New York’s Bus Cleanup”; and electricity data from Metropolitan Transit Authority, Greening Mass Transit.

  208 fewer than 850 gallons of gas per year: Glaeser and Kahn, “Greenness of Cities.”

  208 twice as likely to take mass transit as to drive to work: In 2008, 5 percent of Americans used public transportation to get to work, and 75.5 percent drove themselves to work. In the same year, 23.3 percent of New Yorkers drove themselves to work, while 54.8 percent used public transportation. U.S. Census Bureau, American Community Survey, 2008 Data Profile for the City of New York and the United States, generated using American FactFinder.

  208 On average, when population doubles . . . their residents use the most gas: Glaeser and Kahn, “Greenness of Cities.”

  208 biggest city-suburb gaps are in older areas: Ibid.

  208 also occur in places like Atlanta and Nashville: Ibid.

  208 urbanites use less electricity: Ibid. 208 Electrical appliances account for two thirds of residential energy use: The Census Bureau gives us a convenient snapshot of electricity usage. It asks 5 percent of the U.S. population how much their household is spending on electricity. Using state-level price data from the Department of Energy, we can then convert that spending into electricity usage. With a little bit of statistics, we can use this data to estimate how much electricity an average family buys in different parts of the country. Because apartment dwellers often don’t directly pay for their own electricity, we have to use the government’s Residential Energ
y Consumption Survey to fill in the gaps. To figure out the total carbon emissions from electricity, we need to multiply average electricity usage in a place by the carbon emissions associated with creating electricity in that region. Glaeser and Kahn, “Greenness of Cities.”

  209 lowest electricity-using metropolitan areas: Ibid.

  209 lead the pack in electricity consumption: Ibid.

  209 The average single-family detached home consumes: Department of Energy, U.S. Energy Information Administration, Residential Energy Consumption Survey (RECS), 2005 Consumption & Expenditures Tables, Table US8. Average Consumption by Fuels Used, 2005, http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/recs/2005/c&e/summary/pdf/tableus8.pdf.

  209 The average suburban household consumes: Ibid.

  209 central-city residents use less electricity: Glaeser and Kahn, “The Greenness of Cities.”

  209 More centralized . . . like Dallas or Phoenix: Ibid.

  209 natural gas is America’s primary source of warmth: Department of Energy, U.S. Energy Information Administration, Office of Integrated Analysis and Forecasting, “Emissions of Greenhouse Gases in the United States 2008,” Dec. 2009, table 7, U.S. Carbon Dioxide Emissions from Residential Sector Energy Consumption, 1990-2008, www.eia.doe.gov/oiaf/1605/ggrpt/pdf/0573(2008).pdf.

  209 Detroit and Grand Rapids . . . even at night: Glaeser and Kahn, “The Greenness of Cities.”

  209 it should be no surprise that cities are greener than suburbs: Ibid.

  210 But the differences between . . . its equivalent in Memphis: Ibid.

  210 Older places ... higher emissions: Ibid.

  210 about 2 people living on each acre in Santa Clara County: Haines, “Historical, Demographic, Economic, and Social Data: The United States, 1790-2002”; and U.S. Census Bureau, American Community Survey, 2008 Data Profile for Marin and Santa Clara Counties, California, generated using American FactFinder.

  210 Montgomery County in Maryland has about 3 people per acre: Haines, “Historical, Demographic, Economic, and Social Data: The United States, 1790-2002”; and U.S. Census Bureau, American Community Survey, 2008 Data Profile for Montgomery County, Maryland, generated using American FactFinder.

  210 Cook County, Illinois, has almost 9 people per acre: Haines, “Historical, Demographic, Economic, and Social Data: The United States, 1790-2002”; and U.S. Census Bureau; American Community Survey, 2008 Data Profile for Cook County, Illinois, generated using American FactFinder.

  210 Manhattan has 111 people per acre: Haines, “Historical, Demographic, Economic, and Social Data: The United States, 1790-2002”; and U.S. Census Bureau, American Community Survey, 2008 Data Profile for New York County, generated using American FactFinder.

  210 Santa Clara County more than tripled: Haines, “Historical, Demographic, Economic, and Social Data: The United States, 1790-2002.”

  211 Santa Clara County grew by only 17.8 percent: Ibid.; and U.S. Census Bureau, American Community Survey, 2008 Data Profile for Santa Clara County, California, generated using American FactFinder.

  211 median sales price passed $800,000: National Association of Realtors, “Median Sales Price of Existing Single-Family Homes for Metropolitan Areas,” 2nd Quarter 2010, www.realtor.org/wps/wcm/connect/497de980426de7ccb96eff03cc9fa30a/REL10Q1T_rev.pdf?MOD=AJPERES&CACHEID=497de980426de7ccb96eff03cc9fa30a.

  211 these places remain the two most expensive: Ibid.

  211 kept high by draconian limits on new construction: Marin County Development and Zoning Code, www.marin.ca.gov/depts/CD/main/comdev/CURRENT/devCode.cfm.

  211 one quarter of the land in the Bay Area: California, Government of, Association of Bay Area Governments, San Francisco Bay Area Housing Needs Plan 2007-2014, p. 3. According to the Greenbelt Alliance, 1.1 million of these acres are protected. About Greenbelt Alliance: www.greenbelt.org/downloads/resources/factsheets/AboutGA_08.pdf.

  211 about 8.7 million acre-feet of water: California Water Plan Update 2005, vol. 2, ch. 22, p. 1.

  211 uses 34 million acre-feet of water each year for irrigation: Ibid., vol. 2, ch. 3, p. 1.

  212 The 1970 California Environmental Quality Act: California, Government of, California Environmental Quality Act (CEQA), Statute and Guidelines 2009.

  212 but also projects permitted by local government: Friends of Mammoth v. Board of Supervisors.

  212 generated 583 environmental impact reviews: Author’s calculations using the databases at www.ceqanet.ca.gov, California’s clearinghouse for California Environmental Quality Act (CEQA) documents, and www.epa.gov/oecaerth/nepa/eisdata.html, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency’s Environmental Impact Statement Database.

  213 “Red” Ken Livingstone: Hoksen, Ken, 90, 240, 288-302, 317; Fiona Hamilton, “Boris Makes an Early Start.”

  213 “single biggest problem facing humanity” . . . “greatest threat to mankind”: Ben Webster, “Congestion Charge Will Rise to £25”; Prince of Wales, “Speech . . . Bali to Poznan.”

  213 The prince was born in 1948 in Buckingham Palace: www.princeofwales.gov.uk/personalprofiles/theprinceofwales/biography.

  213 Livingstone was born three years earlier in Lambeth: Hoksen, Ken, 1.

  213 more formal education than any British king: Dimbleby, Prince of Wales, 25, 79, 89, 103-4.

  213 Livingstone’s education was spotty: Hoksen, Ken, 5-7.

  213 “cultivating tumors in the smaller rodents”: Foggo, “Ken, the Animal Tester of X Block.”

  213 rising in the London-Lambeth Labour Party: Hoksen, Ken, 38-80.

  213 Prince Charles was being a dutiful royal: Dimbleby, Prince of Wales, 159, 214, 217.

  213 young prince’s Cinderella wedding: Ibid., 284-85, 288-90.

  213 head of the Greater London Council: Carvel, Citizen Ken, 18.

  213 Ken Livingstone refused to attend: Willis, “Royal Wedding”; and Hoksen, Ken, 99.

  214 Livingstone argued loud and long: Rowbotham, “London’s ‘Red Ken’ Arrives.”

  214 He fought for more housing, but he opposed skyscrapers: Hoksen, Ken, 408, and Sudjic, “Thoroughly Modernising Mayor.”

  214 patron of sustainable agriculture and a foe of modernism: Dimbleby, Prince of Wales, 312.

  214 an opportunity to push for organic farming: Ibid., 439. Explanation of the Duchy of Cornwall at www.duchyofcornwall.org/naturalenvironment.htm, linked from the Prince of Wales Web site.

  214 tough attack on modernist architecture: Dimbleby, Prince of Wales, 314-17.

  214 offered a nostalgic vision: Prince of Wales, Speech . . . Royal Institute of British Architects.

  214 “a monstrous carbuncle on the face”: Ibid.

  214 “Why has everything got to be vertical”: Ibid.

  214 “a giant glass stump”: Ibid.

  214 but the prince won, sort of: “Victoriana vs. Mies in London,” New York Times, May 3, 1984, p. C18.

  214 “an early Victorian market town”: Worsley, “A Model Village Grows Up Gracefully.”

  214 forces behind the New Urbanist movement: Watson et al., Learning from Poundbury, 8.

  214 New Urbanism “stand[s] for . . . our built legacy”: Charter of the New Urbanism, www.cnu.org/charter.

  214 more conservationist than the New Urbanist communities of America: Compare the Web site of Poundbury, www.duchyofcornwall.org/designanddevelopment_poundbury_livinginpoundbury.htm, with its note that “It is intended to be a sustainable development” and that it is “designed to maintain the quality of the environment” and its photographs of green space, with the Web site of Celebration, Florida, www.celebration.fl.us/towninfo.html, with its emphasis on its “strong sense of self ” and photographs of people at play.

  215 In Celebration, 91 percent of people who leave their homes to work take cars: U.S. Census Bureau, Census 2000, P30, Means of Transportation to Work for Workers 16 Years and Over, Summary File 3, generated using American FactFinder.

  215 More people (64.5 percent) drive to work in Poundbury: Watson, Learning from Poundbury, 37.

  215 Three quar
ters of Poundbury’s residents drive on their shopping trips: Ibid.

  215 About 70 percent of the homes in Celebration are single-family: U.S. Census Bureau, Census 2000, H30, Units in Structure, Summary File 3, generated using American FactFinder.

  215 only 17 percent of Poundbury’s homes are apartments: Watson, Learning from Poundbury, 19.

  215 pay £5 each time they entered an inner corridor of London: Leape, “London Congestion Charge.”

  215 congestion charging has appealed to economists: For instance, Vickrey, “Congestion Theory,” 251; Vickrey, “Pricing of Urban Street Use”; Vickrey, “Pricing in Urban and Suburban Transport”; and Walters, “Private and Social Cost of Highway Congestion.”

  215 by moving people out of cars and into subways: Behar, “Livingstone Wins Fight.”

  215 He also saw it as progressive legislation: Giles, “A Logical Effort to Ease the London Gridlock”; see also: “Traffic Decongestant,” Economist, Feb. 15, 2003.

  216 greater than 20 percent reduction in driving: Lewis Smith, “Traffic Still Light.”

  216 congestion dropped by 30 percent over the next two years: Leape, “London Congestion Charge.”

  216 postmodernist Number 1 Poultry Building: Lillyman et al., Critical Architecture, 143.

  216 Climate Group’s Low Carbon Champions Award: “London Leaders Lauded,” www.edie.net/news/news_story.asp?id=10857.

  216 a furor when he flew his entourage: Philip Webster, “Miliband Attacks Prince for Flying.”

  217 embraced higher-density building to protect London’s Green Belt: Design for London, “Housing for a Compact City.”

  217 “overblown phallic sculptures”: Prince of Wales, Speech . . . “Tall Buildings.”

  217 half of America’s homes in 2000 were built between 1970 and 2000: U.S. Census Bureau, American Community Survey, 2008 Data Profile for the United States, generated using American FactFinder.

  218 carbon consumption would increase by 139 percent: In 2006, per capita emissions in the United States were 19.78 metric tons. In France, they were 6.60 metric tons; in China, 4.58 metric tons; and in India, 1.16 metric tons. Total emissions in 2006 were 29.195 billion metric tons. If we subtract China’s 2006 emissions from this total (1.314 billion people times 4.58 metric tons per capita for a total of 6.018 billion tons) as well as India’s (1.112 billion people times 1.16 metric tons per capita for a total of 1.293 billion tons), and then add China’s total emissions if they were at the U.S. per capita level (1.314 billion people times 19.78 metric tons for a total of 25.998 billion tons) as well as India’s (1.112 billion people times 19.78 metric tons per capita for a total of 21.988 billion tons), the new world total would be 69.8601 billion tons, an increase of 139 percent.