The Jatakas

by Sarah Shaw

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  Appendix A

  The disciples of the Buddha

  The Buddha’s disciples frequently take rebirth with him in various forms in a number of stories, either as major players or in cameo roles. Most of them attain enlightenment, or arahatship, in his lifetime, after having made resolves comparable to that of the Buddha many lifetimes ago: Sariputta, for instance, is said to have made a resolve to be his chief disciple and to attain enlightenment under his guidance. Having attained this goal, his death, like that of other arahats and paccekabudhhas, is called a parinibbana, or entrance into nibbana. Below is a list of followers and their identities in past lives in stories featured here.

  Anuruddha: Sakka (243 and 540).

  Ananda: Pajjunna (75), tree spirit (121), king (243, 385, 407 and 540), otter (316), brahmin (402), king who protects goose (476), arrow maker (539).

  Angulimala: yakkha (55).

  Bhaddakapilani, Bodhisatta’s mother (540).

  Devadatta, foolish merchant (1), water yakkha (20), Kaalbu, king of Kasi
(313), snake charmer (506).

  Kassapa, Dukulaka, the Bodhisatta’s father (540).

  Khema, girl with bangle (539).

  Moggallana, elephant (37), jackal (316), youngest goose (476), Migajina (539).

  Rahulamata, the Buddha’s consort in many lives: Subhaddha (95), Sumana (506), Sivali (539).

  Rahula, king’s eldest son (95), Dighavu (539).

  Sariputta, monkey (37 and 316), chief disciple (99), general (313), brahmin (385), tree spirit (402), King Uggasena (506), second youngest goose (476), charioteer (538), Narada (539).

  Uppalavanna, the goddess of the parasol (538), the goddess Bahusodari (540).

  Other Buddha’s followers:

  Travellers (1), troop of monkeys (20 and 407), courtiers (95), flock of geese (476), the court (538).

  Members of the royal family, father and mother deer (385).

  Appendix B

  Cosmology

  There are thirty-one levels of existence in Buddhist cosmology, not all of which are mentioned in the stories in this collection. Those that do feature are listed here, with the story numbers in which they appear or are mentioned placed in parentheses.

  Formless realms (arupa)

  These four realms are the highest kinds of existence, where beings take rebirth without any bodily form at all. The Bodhisatta never takes rebirth in these in Jataka stories as his lifespan, of anything from 20,000 to 84,000 aeons, would be too long for him to be able to fulfil his vow (99). These realms correspond to the four formless meditations, the fifth to the eighth jhana.

  Brahma heavens (rupa)

  These are the heavens in which rebirth takes place on the basis of the meditation (jhana). There are twenty-three in all, arranged in groups that correspond to the first four jhana meditations. The Bodhisatta enters or leaves one of these realms in a number of stories. King Makhadeva is reborn in one for practising the divine abidings (9). The parents of Sama are also reborn from such a realm (540). In Jataka 99 the Bodhisatta is reborn in the Realm of Streaming Radiance (abhassara), associated with the second meditation, characterized by strong joy (piti). Beings in these realms fill a universe with their bodies and only use the senses of sight and hearing. Their lifespans vary from a third of an aeon up to 16,000 in the very highest. There is no speech, action or dialogue in a Brahma heaven: no stories are set in these realms. If a being does wish to visit the realm of humans he needs to acquire a bodily form (99).

  Deva realms (kama)

  These are the six heavens of the sense sphere, in which beings are reborn on the basis of generosity, keeping the precepts, faith and discussion about dhamma. The highest of these are not mentioned in the stories in this collection. Beings from the two lowest, the heaven of the Four Kings and the realm of the Thirty-Three Gods, are frequently involved in the action of Jatakas, though usually ‘on the ground’ when they visit animals and humans. The Four Great Kings are associated with protection. The goddess in Jataka 539, for instance, acts on their behalf, to safeguard those lost at sea. The spirits of trees are associated with this realm (121). The realm of the Thirty-Three Gods is a place of music, games, entertainment and discussion and is ruled by King Sakka. Sakka, whose throne becomes hot when some act of virtue is about to take place, frequently intercedes in the human realm in disguise (316, 539 and 540). Vissakamma, the architect and designer from this realm, builds huts for ascetics (538 and 540). As in all the sense-sphere heavens, lifespans are very long (500–128,000 divine years), though not as long as in the Brahma realms. There is no old age, sickness or death in the human sense. Beings fall away from that heaven when their lifespan is over and take rebirth elsewhere.

  The human realm

  The lowest of the seven realms in which rebirth takes place on the basis of skilful consciousness (kusala citta). Buddhist abhidhammic sources say that the lifespan of a human is variable. The introduction to the Jatakas concurs with this but says that beings here have lifespans ranging from a hundred years to, in a golden age, 84,000 years! (9 and 95). This realm is regarded as a fortunate destiny (sugati), but humans do experience old age, sickness, death and hunger; in this regard they share features with the animal realms, to which they live in close proximity. This realm is said to be the best place to practise the Buddhist path. The Bodhisatta vow is taken here (the Far Past) and Buddhas always become fully enlightened as humans.

  The bad destinies (dugatiyo)

  These are seven dugatiyo: the four realms of animals, the jealous gods (asuras), hungry ghosts (petas) and the hells. Many Jatakas take place in the higher animal realms, the destinies of those who do not keep the precepts. The naga realm (506) is also considered a lower destiny, though the snake-like nagas can assume human form. There are a number of hells, where lifespans may last for aeons. The king in Jataka 313 is swallowed up by the Avici hell, one of the lowest. The Bodhisatta is never born in a hell in the Jatakas, but remembers the Ussada hell in Jataka 538. As for any other realm, existence in the hells is impermanent.

  For tables of realms, see Collins, Nirvana and Other Buddhist Felicities, p. 298, Table 4.1 and Gethin, Foundations of Buddhism, pp. 116–17.

  Appendix C

  Indian sites that portray Jatakas

  Indian sites that portray Jatakas translated in this collection

  Ajanta, 75, 313, 506, 539, 540.

  Bharhut, 9 (‘magha deviya’), 316 (‘sachha’), 407, 538 (‘muga pakiya’).

  Buddha Gaya, 106.

  Nagarjunakonda, 316, 506.

  Sanchi, 407, 540.

  Source: D.C. Ahir, ‘The Jatakas in Indian Art’, The Influence of Jatakas on Art and Literature, pp. 1–30.

  Glossary and index of proper names

  Does not include places and people mentioned only in passing. Number of story in this collection in which a character features, either in story from the present or in earlier life, in brackets. Although diacritics are used words are in Roman alphabetical order.

  A

  Abhinna, the higher knowledges, obtained on the basis of the fourth meditation (jhana).

  Anathapindika, a banker of Savatthi and lay disciple of the Buddha, famed for his outstanding generosity (1).

  Anotatta, one of seven great lakes (476).

  Anuruddha, cousin of the Buddha and one of his principal disciples, renowned both for his friendliness and his skill in the divine eye, which enables him to see the arising of beings in different realms (Sakka in 540).

  Abhidhamma, Buddhist higher philosophy, in seven books, constituting one of three ‘baskets’, or collections, of the teaching.

  Ajivaka, naked ascetic.

  Ananda, one of the chief disciples and the Buddha’s constant companion. He provides an unenlightened, human ‘foil’ to the Buddha, weeping at his death, parinibbana, and making errors of various kinds during the Buddha’s life, for which he is rebuked by the other monks. He commits to memory all the teachings of the Buddha so that they can be recorded at the First Council after the Buddha’s death. His admission to this council of arahats is only obtained the night before the meeting, when he becomes enlightened on going to bed. Like the two chief disciples, Moggallana and Sariputta, he is constantly reborn alongside the Bodhisatta (75, 121, 316, 385, 402, 407, 539 and 540).

  Angulimala, a robber who becomes a monk in the Buddha’s order and attains arahatship. He made a necklace from the little fingers of his victims and hoped that the Buddha would give him the last; the Buddha converts him instead. A chant delivered by him, in which he says he has killed no being in the time since he was born as a Buddhist monk, is said to have saved the baby of a labouring woman and is still chanted today for women in childbirth (yakkha in 55).

  Arahat, an enlightened being. This form of enlightenment is only possible in the time of a Buddha’s teaching. Sometimes those listening to the stories told by the Buddha attain arahatship at the conclusion of a story and after the exposition of the four noble truths. More commonly, th
ey attain the three stages of path that precede it: stream-entry, which means that arahatship will be obtained in seven lifetimes; one-return, which means that it will be obtained within one more rebirth, and never-return, which means that it will be obtained in this lifetime.

  Aritthajanaka, son of king Mahajanaka, who assumes kingship but is killed by his brother Polajanaka, father of the Bodhisatta (539).

  Avici, the lowest of the eight great hells, probably the same as the Niraya hell. Ten thousand yojanas long, it is boiling hot and is the destination of those who have performed very grievous crimes. It is said to be the lowest point in the universe. Rebirth here may be for aeons, but is not permanent.

  B

  Bahusodari, goddess of the mountain who used to be the Bodhisatta’s mother (540). In last life is arahat, Uppalavanna.

  Bhaddakapilani, an enlightened nun at the time of the Buddha, who had been the wife of Kassapa. As Parika she is the wife of Kassapa in his earlier rebirth as Dukulaka, and mother of the Bodhisatta as Sama (540).

  Bhante, term of address for monks, still used today.

  Bhikkhu, Buddhist monk. In this translation the word ‘monk’ is used in narrative, but the word ‘bhikkhu’ is retained as a term of address.

  Bodhisatta, the awakening being, or the being bound for enlightenment, who has made a vow to develop the ten perfections and become a completely awakened Buddha; denotes the Buddha in the stories from the past.

  Brahma, lord of the heaven realm attained by the first meditation or jhana; also denotes beings in the form (rupa) heaven realms.

  Brahmadatta, king of Varanasi. So many Jatakas take place during this king’s reign that it is thought to be a dynastic title.

  Brahmavihara, divine abiding. One of the four illimitables of loving kindness, compassion, sympathetic joy and equanimity, which can be developed in the world in dealing with others or as meditations (jhanas) leading to rebirth in a Brahma heaven after death.

  Buddha, literally, one who is awake. The fully enlightened being who can teach, as well as find, the eightfold path to freedom. It is a generic term, applied to Buddha Gotama, the most recent Buddha, whose past lives form the subject matter of the Jatakas. His predecessor and mentor was called Dipankara.