American Experiment

by James Macgregor Burns

  197 [Stalin’s response to Churchill’s warning]: quoted in Burns, Soldier, p. 327. [Possibility of Nazi-Soviet deal]: see Mastny, pp. 73-85.

  [Stalin’s suspicions]: see Burns, Soldier, p. 373; Mastny, chs. 2-4 passim; Jackson, ch. 2; Feis, chs. 7-8, 15 passim; Churchill, Hinge, pp. 740-61 passim; Keith Sainsbury, The Turning Point (Oxford University Press, 1985), ch. 2; see also Mark A. Stoler, “The ‘Second Front’ and American Fears of Soviet Expansion, 1941-1943,” Military Affairs, vol. 39, no. 3 (October 1975), pp. 136-41.

  198 [Quebec Conference]: Dallek, pp. 408-21; Feis, ch. 16; Pogue, ch. 13; Winston S. Churchill, Closing the Ring (Houghton Mifflin, 1951), pp. 80-97; Jackson, pp. 101-8; Burns, Soldier, pp. 390-94.

  [FDR’s trip to Cairo]: Keith Eubank, Summit at Teheran (Morrow, 1985), ch. 6; Burns, Soldier, pp. 402-3,

  [Cairo Conference]: Eubank, ch. 7; Churchill, Closing, pp. 325-41; Sainsbury, ch. 7; Barbara W. Tuchman, Stilwell and the American Experience in China, 1911-45 (Macmillan, 1970), ch. 16; Burns, Soldier, pp. 403-5.

  [FDR on Stalin]: quoted in Burns, Soldier, p. 407.

  [Teheran Conference]: ibid., pp. 406-14; Dallek, pp. 430-40; Eubank; Feis, chs. 25-28 passim; F. P. King, The Sew Internationalism: Allied Policy and the European Peace, 1939-1945 (Archon Books, 1973); Sainsbury, ch. 8; Beitzell, part 5; W. Averell Harriman and Elie Abel, Special Envoy to Churchill and Stalin, 1941-1946 (Random House, 1975), ch. 12; Mastny, pp. 122-33; Churchill, Closing, pp. 342-407.

  [Churchill on FDR’s drifting]: Sainsbury, p. 231.

  199 [Birthday toasts and FDR on the rainbow coalition]: Burns, Soldier, p. 411. [Sword of Stalingrad]: ibid., p. 410.

  [General strategic, background, European war]: see Weigley, American Way, ch. 14.

  199 [Preparations for D-Day]: Burns, Soldier, pp. 473-74; Ambrose, Supreme Commander, book 2, part 1; Russell F. Weigley, Eisenhower’s Lieutenants: The Campaign of France and Germany, 1944-1945; (Indiana University Press, 1981), part1; Jackson, ch. 6; Pogue, ch. 19 passim.

  200 [“O.K., let’s go”]: quoted in Ambrose, Supreme Commander, p. 417, and see footnote.

  [Normandy invasion]: ibid., book 2, part 2; Weigley, Lieutenants, ch. 5; Max Hastings, Overlord: D-Day and the Battle for Normandy (Simon and Schuster, 1984); Shirer, Rise and Fall, pp. 1036-42; Jackson, ch. 8; Burns, Soldier, pp. 475-77.

  [Intelligence and deception at Normandy]: see Ralph Bennett, Ultra in the West: The Normandy Campaign, 1944-45; (Hutchinson, 1979), esp. chs. 1-3; Weigley, Lieutenants, pp. 53-55; Jackson, ch. 7; Stephen E. Ambrose, Ike’s Spies: Eisenhower and the Espionage Establishment (Doubleday, 1981), chs. 6-7. [FDR’s prayer]: June 6, 1944, in Public Papers, vol. 13, pp. 152-53, quoted at p. 152.

  201 [General strategic background, Pacific war]: see Weigley, American Way, ch. 13.

  [Stilwell-Chiang relations]: Tuchman, ch. 12 and part 2 passim.

  [MacArthur’s opposition to direct Pacific thrust]: see Weigley, American Way, pp. 283-84; Spector, pp. 255-56, 276-80. 201-2 [Pacific campaign]: Toland, Rising Sun, parts 5-6 passim: Spector, chs. 12-14, 19-20; Thorne, Allies of a Kind, parts 4-5 passim; Samuel Eliot Morison, History of United States Naval Operations in World War II (Atlantic Monthly/Little, Brown, 1947-62), vols. 7-8, 12-13; Philip A. Crowl and Edmund G. Love, Seizure of the Gilberts and Marshalls (U.S. Department of the Army, 1955); Philip A. Crowl, Campaign in the Marianas (U.S. Department of the Army, 1960); M. Hamlin Cannon, Leyte: The Return to the Philippines (U.S. Department of the Army, 1954); Robert R. Smith, Triumph in the Philippines (U.S. Department of the Army, 1963); Manchester, American Caesar, pp. 339-55, 363-73, and ch. 7.

  202 [Popular support for Russia after Pearl Harbor]: Ralph B. Levering, American Opinion and the Russian Alliance, 1939-1945 (University of North Carolina Press, 1976), p. 61 (Figure 2); see also Melvin Small, “How We Learned to Love the Russians: American Media and the Soviet Union During World War II,” Historian, vol. 36, no. 3 (May 1974), pp. 455-78.

  [Time’s revised view of Stalin]: Time, vol. 35, no. 1 (January 1, 1940), pp. 14-17; and Time, vol. 41, no. 1 (January 4, 1943), pp. 21-24.

  [Tribune on communists]: quoted in Levering, p. 76.

  [Herald Tribune on Stalin]: ibid., p. 89.

  [Reynolds’s defense of Soviet purge]: Reynolds, … Only the Stars Are Neutral (Random House, 1942).

  [“ ‘Don’t say a word against Stalin’ ”]: Eastman, “We Must Face the Facts About Russia,” Reader’s Digest, vol. 43, no. 255 (July 1943), pp. 1-14, quoted at p. 3.

  [Hitler’s exploitation of freedom as symbol]: Burns, Soldier, pp. 386-87; see also James MacGregor Burns, “The Roosevelt-Hitler Battle of Symbols,” Antioch Review, vol. 2, no. 3 (Fall 1942), pp. 407-21; transcripts of translated Nazi broadcasts at the Franklin D. Roosevelt Library at Hyde Park, N.Y.; Z. A. B. Zeman, Nazi Propaganda (Oxford University Press, 1964); Alexander L. George, Propaganda Analysis (Row, Peterson, 1959); Paul M. A. Linebarger, Psychological Warfare (Infantry Journal Press, 1948); Ralph K. White, “Hitler, Roosevelt, and the Nature of War Propaganda,” Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, vol. 44, no. 2 (April 1949), pp. 157-74; Ernest K. Bramsted, Goebbels and National Socialist Propaganda (Michigan State University Press.

  [“Essence of our struggle”]: address to the Delegates of the International Labour Organization, November 6, 1941, in Public Papers, vol. 10, pp. 474-80, quoted at p. 476.

  203 [Economic bill of rights]: see Annual Message to the Congress, January 6, 1941, in ibid., vol. 9, pp. 663-72, esp. pp. 670-71.

  [“Second bill of rights”]: Message on the State of the Union, January 11, 1944, in ibid., vol. 13, pp. 32-42, quoted at p. 41, as modified by comparison with tapes of the speech.

  [FDR’s vice-presidential manipulations]: Burns, Soldier, pp. 503-7; Blum, V Was for Victory, pp. 288-92; John Morton Blum, ed., The Price of Vision: The Diary of Henry A. Wallace (Houghton Mifflin, 1973), pp. 360-72; Leon Friedman, “Election of 1944,” in Schlesinger, vol. 4, pp. 3023-28; James F. Byrnes, All in One Lifetime (Harper, 1958), ch. 13.

  203 [GOP road to nomination]: Richard N. Smith, Thomas E. Dewey and His Times (Simon and Schuster, 1982), pp. 385-405; Manchester, American Caesar, pp. 355-63; Neal, chs. 17-18; Friedman, pp. 3017-23; Patterson, Mr. Republican, pp. 268-72.

  [“Sinister drama”]: quoted in Friedman, p. 3019.

  204 [Risk to Dewey of denouncing FDR’s postwar plans]: see Richard E. Darilek, A Loyal Opposition in Time of War: The Republican Party and the Politics of Foreign Policy from Pearl Harbor to Yalta (Greenwood Press, 1976), ch. 7.

  [GOP rumor campaign]: Perrett, pp. 292-93.

  [Hillman-Browder billboards]: Manchester, Glory and Dream, p. 330; see also Smith, pp. 409-10.

  [FDR’s Teamster address]: September 23, 1944, in Public Papers, vol. 13, pp. 284-92, quoted at p. 290, as modified by comparison with tapes of the speech. [“Keep the record straight”]: quoted in Smith, p. 422.

  [Dewey on FDR’s “indispensability”]: ibid., p. 424.

  [Dewey on Democratic party takeover by Hillman-Browder]: Friedman, p. 3033. [“Bricker could have written it”]: Smith, pp. 433-34, quoted at p. 433.

  204-5 [Resurgent antagonism to Russia]: see Levering, ch. 6 and pp. 169-84.

  205 [Lippmann’s reluctant vote for FDR]: see Steel, pp. 412-14.

  [“I can’t talk about my opponent”]: campaign remarks at Bridgeport, Conn., November 4, 1944, in Public Papers, vol. 13, pp. 389-91, quoted at p. 391.

  [Election results, 1944]: Schlesinger, vol. 4, p. 3096; Smith, pp. 435-36.

  [Trend toward “privatization”]: see Polenberg, p. 137.

  [“Son of a bitch”]: quoted in Burns, Soldier, p. 530.

  [FDR’s arrival at Yalta]: ibid., p. 564.

  206 [Yalta Conference]: Diane Shaver Clemens, Yalta (Oxford University Press, 1970); King, ch. 10 and passim; Dallek, pp. 506-20; Harriman and Abel, ch. 17; James F. Byrnes, Speaking Frankly (Harper, 1947), ch. 2; Burns, Soldier, pp. 564-80; Mastny, ch. 7; Winston S. Churchill, Triumph and Tragedy (Houghton Mi
fflin, 1953), book 2, chs. 1-4; Feis, chs. 51-57; Charles E. Bohlen, Witness to History, 1929-1969 (Norton, 1973), ch. 11; Robert A. Divine, Second Chance: The Triumph of Internationalism in America During World War II (Atheneum, 1967); Athan G. Theoharis, The Yalta Myths: An Issue in U.S. Politics, 1945-1955 (University of Missouri Press, 1970); Russell D. Buhite, Decisions at Yalta: An Appraisal of Summit Diplomacy (Scholarly Resources, 1986); Deborin, ch. 17.

  [Battle of the Bulge]: John Toland, Battle: The Story of the Bulge (Random House, 1959); John S. D. Eisenhower, The Bitter Woods (Putnam, 1969); Shirer, Rise and Fall, pp. 1089-96; Weigley, Lieutenants, chs. 25-29.

  [FDR on Polish-Americans]: quoted in Burns, Soldier, p. 569.

  [Stalin on Poland]: quoted in Harriman and Abel, p. 407.

  [“Pre-eminent interests”]: quoted in ibid., p. 399.

  [Leahy-FDR exchange]: quoted in Burns, Soldier, p. 572.

  208-9 [FDR’s health]: ibid., pp. 448-51, 573-74, 594-95, and sources cited therein.

  5. Cold War: The Fearful Giants

  210 [FDR’s address on Yalta]: in The Public Papers and Addresses of Franklin D. Roosevelt, Samuel I. Rosenman, comp. (Random House, 1938-50), vol. 13, pp. 570-86, quoted at pp. 570, 586; see also James MacGregor Burns, Roosevelt: The Soldier of Freedom (Harcourt, 1970), pp. 581-82.

  210-11 [Deterioration of Allied relations]: Robert Dallek, Franklin D. Roosevelt and American Foreign Policy, 1932-1945 (Oxford University Press, 1979), pp. 521-27; Winston S. Churchill, Triumph and Tragedy (Houghton Mifflin, 1953), book 2, chs. 6-8; W. Averell Harriman and Elie Abel, Special Envoy to Churchill and Stalin, 1941-1946 (Random House, 1975), ch. 18; Francis L. Loewenheim et al., eds., Roosevelt and Churchill: Their Secret Wartime Correspondence (Saturday Review Press/E. P. Dutton, 1975), pp. 660-709; Robert Lovett Diary and Daily Log Sheet, July 1, 1947-Jan. 27, 1949, New-York Historical Society, New York, N.Y.

  211 [Stalin-FDR exchange over surrender talks]: quoted in Dallek, pp. 526-27; see also Allen Dulles, The Secret Surrender (Harper, 1966).

  [Jefferson Day draft]: in Public Papers, vol. 13, pp. 613-16, quoted at pp. 615, 616.

  The Death and Life of Franklin D. Roosevelt

  212 [FDR’s death and return to Hyde Park]: Burns, Soldier, Epilogue; Bernard Asbell, When FDR Died (Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1961); Turnley Walker, Roosevelt and the Warm Springs Story (A. A. Wyn, 1953), ch. 7.

  [“A lonesome train”]: Millard Lampell, “The Lonesome Train,” quoted in Burns, Soldier, p. 604.

  212-13 [FDR’s lasting influence]: see William E. Leuchtenburg, In the Shadow of FDR (Cornell University Press, 1983), Preface and ch. 1.

  213 [Berlin on FDR]: Isaiah Berlin, Personal Impressions, Henry Hardy, ed. (Viking, 1981), p.3.

  [“Great men have two lives”]: quoted in Leuchtenburg, pp. viii-ix.

  214 [Hawley on New Deal policies]: Ellis Hawley, The New Deal and the Problem of Monopoly (Princeton University Press, 1966), pp. 15, 270.

  [“Fiscal drift”]: Stein, The Fiscal Revolution in America (University of Chicago Press, 1969), ch. 4.

  [“Helterskelter” planning]: entry of April 11, 1938, in Morgenthau Presidential Diaries, book 1, Franklin D. Roosevelt Library, Hyde Park, N.Y.

  [“Read it a little bit”]: entry of April 25, 1939, in ibid.

  [Third New Deal]: Barry D. Karl, The Uneasy State (University of Chicago Press, 1983), esp. chs. 7-8.

  216 [Dualism in FDR as war leader]: see Burns, Soldier, pp. 607-9; Daniel Yergin, Shattered Peace: The Origins of the Cold War and the National Security State (Houghton Mifflin, 1977), ch. 2; Isaiah Berlin, The Hedgehog and the Fox (Simon and Schuster, 1970).

  [FDR’s articulation of freedom]: see Burns, “Battle of Symbols.”

  [FDR and the military]: Burns, Soldier, pp. 490-96, Stimson quoted at p. 493; see also Kent Roberts Greenfield, American Strategy in World War II: A Reconsideration (Johns Hopkins Press, 1963), ch. 3; William Emerson, “Franklin Roosevelt as Commander-in-Chief in World War II,” Military Affairs, vol. 22 (1958), pp. 181-207.

  216-17 [FDR’s insistence upon unconditional surrender]: Raymond G. O’Connor, Diplomacy for Victory: FDR and Unconditional Surrender (Norton, 1971), esp. ch. 3; Russell F. Weigley, The American Way of War (Macmillan, 1973), pp. 281, 325; Gaddis Smith, American Diplomacy During the Second World War, 1941-1945 (Wiley, 1967), ch. 3; Anne Armstrong, Unconditional Surrender: The Impact of the Casablanca Policy upon World War II (Rutgers University Press, 1961).

  217 [Dallek on FDR as “principal architect”]: Dallek, p. 532.

  [FDR’s refusal to share atomic secrets with Soviets]: see ibid., pp. 416-18, 470-72, 534; Barton J. Bernstein, “Roosevelt, Truman, and the Atomic Bomb: A Reinterpretation,” Political Science Quarterly, vol. 90, no. 1 (Spring 1975), pp. 24-32.

  [De Gaulle on FDR]: De Gaulle, War Memoirs: Unity, 1942-1944 (Simon and Schuster, 1959), p. 270.

  [“Once-born” and “divided selves”]: William James, The Varieties of Religious Experience (Longmans, Green, 1935), p. 199, as cited and interpreted in Erik H. Erikson, Young Man Luther (Norton, 1962), pp. 41, 117.

  218 [FDR and the Holocaust]: David S. Wyman, The Abandonment of the Jews: America and the Holocaust, 1941-1945 (Pantheon, 1984); Henry L. Feingold, The Politics of Rescue: The Roosevelt Administration and the Holocaust, 1938-1945 (Rutgers University Press, 1970); Martin Gilbert, Auschwitz and the Allies (Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1981); Richard Breitman and Allan M. Kraut, American Refugee Policy and European Jewry, 1933-1945 (Indiana University Press, 1987); Martin Gilbert, The Holocaust: The Jewish Tragedy (Collins, 1986); Deborah E. Lipstadt, Beyond Belief The American Press and the Coming of the Holocaust, 1933-1945 (Free Press, 1986); Michael R. Marcus, The Holocaust in History (University Press of New England, 1987), ch. 8.

  218 [“Final solution”]: Hermann Goring to Reinhard Heydrich, July 31, 1941, quoted in Gilbert, Holocaust, p. 176.

  219 [Berlin on Eleanor Roosevelt]: Personal impressions, p. 31.

  The Long Telegram

  220 [Origins of the cold war]: D. F. Fleming, The Cold War and Its Origins, 1917-1960, 2 vols. (Doubleday, 1961), esp. vol. 1, ch. 11, and vol. 2, ch. 24; Charles S. Maier, “Revisionism and the Interpretation of Cold War Origins,” Perspectives in American History, vol. 4 (1970), pp. 313-47; John Lewis Caddis, The Long Peace (Oxford University Press, 1987), esp. chs. 1-3, 8; Caddis, “The Emerging Post-Revisionist Synthesis on the Origins of the Cold War,” Diplomatic History, vol. 7, no. 3 (Summer 1983), pp. 171-90; Thomas G. Paterson, On Every Front: The Making of the Cold War (Norton, 1979); Alexander Werth, Russia: The Post-War Years (Taplinger, 1971), ch. 3; Barton J. Bernstein, “American Foreign Policy and the Origins of the Cold War,” in Bernstein and Allen J. Malusow, eds., Twentieth-Century America: Recent Interpretations, 2nd ed. (Harcourt, 1972), pp. 344-94; Lloyd C. Gardiner, Architects of Illusion: Men and Ideas in American Foreign Policy, 1941-1949 (Quadrangle, 1970), ch. 11; Gardiner, Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr.. and Hans J. Morgenthau, The Origins of the Cold War (Ginn and Co., 1970); Thomas T. Hammond, ed., Witnesses to the Origins of the Cold War (University of Washington Press, 1982); Eduard Mark, “American Policy toward Eastern Europe and the Origins of the Cold War,” Journal of American History, vol. 68, no. 2 (September 1981), pp. 313-36; Robert J. Maddox, The New Left and the Origins of the Cold War (Princeton University Press, 1973); Vojtech Mastny, Russia’s Road to the Cold War, 1941-1945 (Columbia University Press, 1979); Thomas G. Paterson, Soviet-American Confrontation: Postwar Reconstruction and the Origins of the Cold War (Johns Hopkins University Press, 1973); Lovett Diary and Log Sheet, 1947-1949; Hugh Thomas, Armed Truce: The Beginnings of the Cold War, 1945-46 (Atheneum, 1987), esp. pp. 541-50; Frederick L. Schuman, The Cold War: Retrospect and Prospect (Louisiana State University Press, 1962); John P. Diggins, The Proud Decades: America in War and in Peaces 1941-1960 (Norton, 1988), ch. 2 passim.

  [“Deep, mournful”]: quoted in Edward Crankshaw, Russia and the Russians (Viking, 1948), p. 21.

  [Crankshaw on Russi
an temperament]: ibid., p. 23.

  221 [Truman on German-Russian fight]: quoted in New York Times, June 24, 1941, p. 7. Copy of newspaper page now displayed in Museum of the Red Army, Moscow.

  [Polk on Soviet postwar cooperation]: Gary J. Buckley, “American Public Opinion and the Origins of the Cold War: A Speculative Reassessment,” Mid-America, vol. 60, no. 1 (January 1978), pp. 35-42, esp. pp. 37-38 (Table 1).

  222 [NSC-68]: Yergin, pp. 401-4, quoted at p. 401; Gaddis, Long Peace, pp. 114-15; Richard A. Melanson, “The Foundations of Eisenhower’s Foreign Policy: Continuity, Community, and Consensus,” in Melanson and David Mayers, eds., Reevaluating Eisenhower: American Foreign Policy in the 1950s (University of Illinois Press, 1987), pp. 31-64, esp. pp. 36-40.

  [“The President is dead”]: quoted in Harry S. Truman, Memoirs: Year of Decisions (Doubleday, 1955), p. 5.

  [“Riding a tiger”]: Truman, Memoirs: Years of Trial and Hope (Doubleday, 1956), p. 1.

  222-3 [Truman’s background and character]: Alfred Steinberg, The Man from Missouri (Putnam, 1962); Cabell Phillips, The Truman Presidency (Macmillan, 1966); Robert L. Miller, Truman: The Rise to Power (McGraw-Hill, 1986); Robert H. Ferrell, Harry S. Truman and the Modern American Presidency (Little, Brown, 1983); Bert Cochran, Harry Truman and the Crisis Presidency (Funk & Wagnalls, 1973); Deborah Welch Larson, Origins of Containment: A Psychological Explanation (Princeton University Press, 1985), ch. 3; John Lewis Caddis, “Harry S. Truman and the Origins of Containment,” in Frank J. Merli and Theodore A. Wilson, eds., Makers of American Diplomacy: From Benjamin Franklin to Henry Kissinger (Scribner, 1974), pp. 493-522; Paterson, On Every Front, ch. 5; Arnold A. Offnner, “The Truman Myth Revealed: From Parochial Nationalist to Cold Warrior,” paper presented at the annual meeting of the Organization of American Historians, Reno, Nev., March 1988.

  223 [FDR’s divided legacy]: see Gardner, Architects, pp. 307-8; see also Warren F. Kimball, ed., Franklin D. Roosevelt and the World Crisis, 1937-1945 (D. C. Heath, 1973), part 2; Thomas, ch. 10.

  [UN organizational meeting]: Robert A. Divine, Second Chance: The Triumph of Internationalism in America During World War II (Atheneum, 1967), ch. 11.