American Experiment

by James Macgregor Burns

  258 [Gomulka’s warning]: quoted in Ambrose, President, p. 354; see also Dallin, pp. 358-64; Konrad Syrop, Spring in October: The Story of the Polish Revolution, 1956 (Praeger, 1957).

  [Hungary]: Paul E. Zinner, Revolution in Hungary (Columbia University Press, 1962); Melvin J. Lasky, ed., The Hungarian Revolution: A White Book (Praeger, 1957); Ambrose, President, ch. 15.

  [“Liberation was a sham”]: Ambrose, President, p. 355.

  [Welch-McCarthy clash]: Oshinsky, ch. 31, quoted at pp. 462, 463, 464.

  [McCarthy’s “condemnation”]: Reeves, ch. 23; Rovere, pp. 222-31.

  [Eisenhower’s hidden hand against McCarthy]: see Greenstein, ch. 5; see also Sherman Adams, Firsthand Report: The Story of the Eisenhower Administration (Harper, 1961), ch. 8; Oshinsky, pp. 258-60, 387-88, and ch. 23.

  [“Purely negative act”]: Ambrose, President, p. 620.

  [Communist Control Act]: see McAuliffe, Crisis on the Left, ch. 9.

  259 [Sputnik]: Walter A. McDougall, … The Heavens and the Earth: A Political History of the Space Age (Basic Books, 1985), pp. 131-34, chs. 6-7; James R. Killian, Jr., Sputnik, Scientists, and Eisenhower (MIT Press, 1977), Introduction and chs. 1-2; Dallin, pp. 453-54; Eisenhower, Waging, ch. 8 passim; Tom Wolfe, The Right Stuff (Farrar, Straus & Giroux, 1979), pp. 69-74.

  259 [“Distinct surprise”]: quoted in Brown, p. 114.

  [Vanguard failure]: McDougall, p. 154; Constance M. Green and Milton Lomask, Vanguard: A History (NASA, 1970), pp. 204-12.

  [Gaither report]: Ambrose, President, pp. 433-35; Morton H. Halperin, “The Gaither Committee and the Policy Process,” World Politics, vol. 13, no. 3 (April 1961), pp. 360-84; Samuel P. Huntington, The Common Defense: Strategic Programs in National Politics (Columbia University Press, 1961), pp. 106-13; Brown, ch. 10; Eisenhower, Waging, pp. 219-23.

  [Eisenhower on U.S. as “scared”]: quoted in Ambrose, President, p. 451. [Eisenhower’s knowledge of U.S. strategic superiority]: Ambrose, Ike’s Spies, pp. 275-78; Robert A. Strong, “Eisenhower and Arms Control,” in Melanson and Mayers, pp. 255-56.

  [Khrushchev]: Dallin, pp. 218-19; Khrushchev Remembers, vols. 1, 2; Edward Crankshaw, Khrushchev (Viking, 1966); Roy A. Medvedev and Zhores A. Medvedev, Khrushchev: The Years in Power, Andrew R. Durkin, trans. (Columbia University Press, 1976).

  260 [Khrushchev’s attack upon Molotov]: Dallin, pp. 227-35, Dallin quoted at p. 230.

  [Khrushchev’s Twentieth Party Congress address]: Khrushchev, “The Crimes of the Stalin Era,” text reprinted in The New Leader, sect. 2, July 16, 1956, S7-S65; see also Dallin, pp. 322-27.

  [Khrushchev in America]: Khrushchev in America (Crosscurrents Press, 1960); “Great Encounter, Part Two,” Newsweek, vol. 54, no. 13 (September 28, 1959), pp. 33-46; Ambrose, President, pp. 541-44; Eisenhower, Waging, pp. 405-14, 432-49; Khrushchev Remembers, vol. 2, ch. 16.

  [Khrushchev on his being denied Disneyland]: quoted in Khrushchev in America, pp. 112-13.

  [U-2]: David Wise and Thomas B. Ross, The U-2 Affair (Random House, 1962); Michael R. Beschloss, Mayday: Eisenhower, Khrushchev and the U-2 Affair (Harper, 1986); Ambrose, President, pp. 571-77; Eisenhower, Waging, pp. 543-52; M. S. Venkataramani, “The U-2 Crisis: An Inquiry into Its Antecedents,” in Venkataramani, Undercurrents in American Foreign Relations: Four Studies (Asia Publishing House, 1965), pp. 157-208; Carl A. Linden, Khrushchev and the Soviet leadership, 1957-1964 (Johns Hopkins Press, 1966), ch. 6.

  261 [Khrushchev on having “parts of the plane” and the pilot]: quoted in Ambrose, President, p. 574.

  262 [Reston on Washington]: New York Times, May 9, 1960, p. 1.

  [Paris summit]: Beschloss, ch. 11; Wise and Ross, ch. 10; Ambrose, President, pp. 577-79; Eisenhower, Waging, pp. 553-59; Khrushchev Remembers, vol. 2, ch. 18; Jack M. Schick, The Berlin Crisis, 1958-1962 (University of Pennsylvania Press, 1971), pp. 111-33; Harold Macmillan, Pointing the Way, 1959-1961 (Macmillan, 1972), ch. 7. [Ambrose on summit]: Ambrose, President, p. 579.

  [Eisenhower’s Farewell Address]: January 17, 1961, in Eisenhower Public Papers, vol. 8, pp. 1035-40, quoted at p. 1038.

  262-3 [“Kept the peace” … “didn’t just happen”]: quoted in Beschloss, p. 388.

  263 [“Stalemate”]: ibid.

  6. The Imperium of Freedom

  264 [Soviet and American military power]: John M. Collins, U.S.-Soviet Military Balance: Concepts and Capabilities, 1960-1980 (McGraw-Hill, 1980), pp. 25-38, Collins quoted on “bombers could burst through” at p. 36; Genrikh Trofimenko, The U.S. Military Doctrine (Progress Publishers, Moscow, 1986).

  [American economic power]: U.S. Bureau of the Census, Historical Statistics of the United States, Colonial Times to 1970 (U.S. Government Printing Office, 1971), part 2, p. 948 (Series W 1-11) and part 1, p. 224 (Series F 1-5); Gertrude Deutsch, ed., The Economic Almanac 1962 (National Industrial Conference Board, 1962), pp. 498, 500; U.S. Library of Congress, Legislative Reference Service, Trends in Economic Growth: A Comparison of the Western Powers and the Soviet Bloc (U.S. Government Printing Office, 1955), pp. 1-5 and passim.

  [“Expansive time”]: David F. Noble, Forces of Production: A Social History of Industrial Automation (Knopf, 1984), p. 3; see also, generally, David M. Potter, People of Plenty: Economic Abundance and the American Character (University of Chicago Press, 1954).

  [American treaty commitments]: see Roland A. Paul, American Military Commitments Abroad (Rutgers University Press, 1973), pp. 14-15.

  [European attacks on America]: see Andre Visson, As Others See Us (Doubleday, 1948); Wolfgang Wagner, “The Europeans’ Image of America,’’ in Karl Kaiser and Hans-Peter Schwarz, eds., America and Western Europe: Problems and Prospects (Lexington Books, 1978), pp. 19-32; Richard Mayne, Postwar: The Dawn of Today’s Europe (Schocken Books, 1983), pp. 111-17; Sidney Alexander, “The European Image of America,” American Scholar, vol. 21, no. 1 (Winter 1951-52), pp. 49-55.

  [Lerner on Europe and America]: Max Lerner, America as a Civilization (Simon and Schuster, 1957), p. 930.

  [European admiration and support of America]: Henry Lee Munson, European Beliefs Regarding the United States (Common Council for American Unity, 1949), pp. 16, 22, 49, and passim.

  [Soviet responses and fears]: see J. M. Mackintosh, Strategy and Tactics of Soviet Foreign Policy (Oxford University Press, 1963); Joseph L. Nogee and Robert H. Donaldson, Soviet Foreign Policy Since World War II (Pergamon Press, 1981), chs. 2, 4; William Zimmerman, Soviet Perspectives on International Relations, 1956-1967 (Princeton University Press, 1969); Charles Gati, “The Stalinist Legacy in Soviet Foreign Policy,” in Stephen F. Cohen et al., eds., The Soviet Union Since Stalin (Indiana University Press, 1980), pp. 279-301;David J. Dallin, Soviet Foreign Policy After Stalin (Lippincott, 1961). [Aviation Day and the “bomber gap”]: see Allen Dulles, The Craft of Intelligence (Harper, 1963), pp. 149, 162-63; Nogee and Donaldson, p. 109; Arnold L. Horelick and Myron Rush, Strategic Power and Soviet Foreign Policy (University of Chicago Press, 1966), pp. 17-18, 27-30, 66; Lincoln P. Bloomfield et al., Khrushchev and the Arms Race: Soviet Interests in Arms Control and Disarmament, 1954-1964 (MIT Press, 1966), ch. 2 passim.

  The Technology of Freedom

  266 [Per capita and national income]: Potter, pp. 81-84.

  267 [American intolerance in 1950s]: see Charles C. Alexander, Holding the Line: The Eisenhower Era, 1952-1961 (Indiana University Press, 1975), pp. 121-22.

  [“Entered a period”]: quoted in James Gilbert, Another Chance: Postwar America, 1945-1968 (Temple University Press, 1981), p. 186.

  [Mergers and acquisitions, 1950s]: Harold G. Vatter, The U.S. Economy in the 1950s: An Economic History (Norton, 1963), pp. 205-6, Schumpeter quoted at p. 206; survival rate of large firms given at ibid.; see also John Kenneth Galbraith, The Affluent Society, 2nd ed. (Houghton Mifflin, 1969), ch. 8; Robert Sobel, The Age of Giant Corporations: A Microeconomic History of American Business, 1914-19**0 (Greenwood Press, 1972), ch. 8; Willard F. Mueller, “Concentration in Manufacturing,” in Edwin Mans
field, ed., Monopoly Power and Economic Performance: Problems of the Modern Economy (Norton, 1978), pp. 69-73.

  [World War II and technological advances]: Noble, ch. 1 passim, pp. 334-35; Ralph Sanders, “Three-Dimensional Warfare: World War II,” in Melvin Kranzberg and Carroll W. Pursell, Jr., eds., Technology in Western Civilization: Technology in the Twentieth Century (Oxford University Press, 1967), pp. 561-78.

  [Federal share of research and development, late 1950s]: W. David Lewis, “Industrial Research and Development,” in Kranzberg and Pursell, p. 632; see also Donald J. Mrozek, “The Truman Administration and the Enlistment of the Aviation Industry in Postwar Defense,” Business History Review, vol. 48, no. 1 (Spring 1974), pp. 73-94.

  267-8 [Rosenberg on technological change and systematized knowledge]: Rosenberg, Technology and American Economic Growth (Harper, 1972), p. 117.

  268 [Air speed records]: Gene Gurney, A Chronology of World Aviation (Franklin Watts, 1965), pp. 139, 144, 171, 192, 207; Roger E. Bilstein, Flight in America, 1900-1983: From the Wrights to the Astronauts (Johns Hopkins University Press, 1984), p. 183; Patrick Harper, ed., The Timetable of Technology (Hearst Books, 1982), p. 154; Thomas M. Smith, “The Development of Aviation,” in Kranzberg and Pursell, pp. 158-59; Tom Wolfe, The Right Stuff (Farrar, Straus & Giroux, 1979), esp. ch. 3.

  268 [Nautilus]: Richard G. Hewlett and Francis Duncan, Nuclear Navy, 1946-1962 (University of Chicago Press, 1974), esp. chs. 6-7.

  [Machine tool industry growth, postwar]: Noble, pp. 8-9.

  [Federal share of R&D, electrical equipment industry, mid-1960s]: ibid., p. 8. [Technological advances in agriculture]: Gilbert C. File, American Farmers: The New Minority (Indiana University Press, 1981), pp. 110-15; Wayne D. Rasmussen, “Scientific Agriculture,” in Kranzberg and Pursell, pp. 337-53; Reynold M. Wik, “Mechanization of the American Farm,” in ibid., pp. 353-68; Rosenberg, Technology and Growth, pp. 127-46; Zvi Griliches, “Research Costs and Social Returns: Hybrid Corn and Related Innovations,” in Nathan Rosenberg, ed., The Economics of Technological Change (Penguin, 1971), pp. 182-202; Griliches, “Hybrid Corn and the Economics of Innovation,” in ibid.,pp. 211-28.

  [Decline of farm labor force]: Rosenberg, Technology and Growth, p. 130; see also Fite, p. 115.

  [Increase of per-acre com yield]: Rasmussen, p. 343.

  [Return on hybrid corn research]: Griliches, “Research Costs,” p. 183.

  268-9 [Agribusiness]: Fite, ch. 7 and pp. 194-97.

  269 [“Enormous Laboratory”]: Lerner, p. 216.

  [Gibbs]: Lynde Phelps Wheeler, Josiah Willard Gibbs: The History of a Great Mind (Yale University Press, 1951); Muriel Rukeyser, Willard Gibbs (Doubleday, Doran, 1942); J. G. Crowther, Famous American Men of Science (Norton, 1937), pp. 227-98. [Marx on science as social activity]: Marx, Capital: A Critique of Political Economy, Samuel Moore and Edward Aveling, trans. (Charles H. Kerr & Co., 1906-9), vol. 1, esp. ch. 15; see also Nathan Rosenberg, “Karl Marx on the economic role of science,” in Rosenberg, Perspectives on Technology (Cambridge University Press, 1976), ch. 7; M. M. Bober, Karl Marx’s Interpretation of History, 2nd. ed. (Harvard University Press, 1968), esp. chs. 1, 8, and pp. 363-76.

  [Corporate R&D and American science]: George H. Daniels, Science in American Society: A Social History (Knopf, 1971), esp. ch. 14; Sobel, ch. 9; John Jewkes, David Sawers, and Richard Stillerman, The Sources of Invention (Macmillan, 1958), esp. chs. 2, 6-7; Jack Raymond, Power at the Pentagon (Harper, 1964), chs. 8-9; William H. Whyte, Jr., The Organization Man (Simon and Schuster, 1956), part 5; Jacob Schmookler, “Technological Progress and the Modern Corporation,” in Edward S. Mason, ed., The Corporation in Modern Society (Harvard University Press, 1960), ch. 8; Jay M. Gould, The Technical Elite (Augustus M. Kelley, 1968), ch. 7; David C. Mowery, “Firm Structure, Government Policy, and the Organization of Industrial Research: Great Britain and the United States, 1900-1950,” Business History Review, vol. 58, no. 4 (Winter 1984), pp. 504-31.

  270 [“Underlying principle”]: Jewkes el al., p. 238.

  [Oppenheimer’s classification as security risk]: United States Atomic Energy Commission, In the Matter of J. Robert Oppenheimer, Transcript of Hearing Before Personnel Security Board, April 12-May 6, 1914 (United States Government Printing Office, 1954); Philip M. Stern, The Oppenheimer Case: Security on Trial (Harper, 1969).

  [Conant on subsidies]: Lerner, p. 218.

  [Gibbs on Yale payroll]: see Wheeler, pp. 57-59, 90-93, quoted at p. 91.

  271 [Taylor and scientific management]: Frederick W. Taylor, The Principles of Scientific Managment (Harper, 1929); Taylor, Shop Management (Harper, 1911); Daniel Nelson, Frederick W. Taylor and the Rise of Scientific Management (University of Wisconsin Press, 1980); Samuel Haber, Efficiency and Uplift: Scientific Management in the Progressive Era, 1890-1920 (University of Chicago Press, 1964); David F. Noble, America by Design: Science, Technology, and the Rise of Corporate Capitalism (Knopf, 1977), pp. 264-77.

  [Watertown strike]: Noble, America by Design, p. 272; Nelson, pp. 164-66; see also U.S. Ordnance Department, Report of the Chief of Ordnance to the Secretary of War: 1913 (U.S. Government Printing Office, 1913), pp. 12-15 and Appendix 1.

  [“Train of gear wheels”]: quoted in Daniels, p. 309.

  271 [“Human engineering”]: Loren Baritz, The Servants of Power: A History of the Use of Social Science in American Industry (1960; reprinted by Greenwood Press, 1974), chs. 8-10 and sources cited therein.

  [“Problem of human relations”]: quoted in Baritz, p. 190.

  [Union heads on “human relations” approach]: ibid., p. 183.

  271-2 [Spot welder on his job]: “J.D.,” quoted in Robert H. Guest, “The Rationalization of Management,” in Kranzberg and Pursell, pp. 56-59.

  272 [Automation]: John Diebold, Automation: Its Impact on Business and Labor (National Planning Association, May 1959); James R. Bright, “The Development of Automation,” in Kranzberg and Pursell, pp. 635-55; Noble, Forces, ch. 4 and passim; Ben B. Seligman, Most Notorious Victory: Man in an Age of Automation (Free Press, 1966); Simon Marcson, ed., Automation, Alienation and Anomie (Harper, 1970), esp. parts 2-3.

  [Automatic equipment sales, late 1950s]: Diebold, p. 22.

  [Automation at Ford]: ibid., pp. 9-10, observer on “whoosh” quoted at p. 9; Bright, pp. 651-53; Allan Nevins and Frank Ernest Hill, Ford: Decline and Rebirth, 1933-1962 (Scribner, 1962), pp. 354-57, 364-66. [“Magical key of creation”]: quoted in Diebold, p. 2.

  273 [Carey on automation]: ibid., p. 35.

  [Fortune’s “automatic factory”]: “The Automatic Factory” and E. W. Leaver and J. J. Brown, “Machines without Men,” Fortune, vol. 34, no. 5 (November 1946), pp. 160-65, 192-204.

  [Reuther on automation]: Reuther, “The Impact of Automation,” in Reuther, Selected Papers, Henry M. Christman, ed. (Macmillan, 1961), pp. 67-100, quoted at p. 76.

  [“Everybody’s slice”]: Diebold, p. 43,

  [Automation and auto worker militancy]: see Nelson Lichtenstein, “Auto Worker Militancy and the Structure of Factory Life, 1937-1955,” Journal of American History, vol. 67, no. 2 (September 1980), pp. 335-53; William A. Faunce, “Automation in the Automobile Industry: Some Consequences for In-Plant Social Structure,” in Marcson, pp. 169-81.

  274 [Butler on man and machine]: Butler, Frewhon, or Over the Range (A. C. Fifield, 1917), pp. 246, 268.

  [Bell on work and the machine]: Bell, Work and Its Discontents (Beacon Press, 1956), p. 56.

  [Mumford on machine as part of system of power]: see Mumford, Technics and Civilization (Harcourt, 1934), pp. 41-45, 273, 324, and passim.

  [Mumford on two technologies]: Mumford, “Authoritarian and Democratic Technics,” Technology and Culture, vol. 5, no. 1 (Winter 1964), pp. 1-8, quoted at p. 2. [Wiener]: Norbert Wiener, The Human Use of Human Beings: Cybernetics and Society (Houghton Mifflin, 1950); Wiener, Cybernetics, or Control and Communication in the Animal and the Machine (Wiley, 1948).

  275 [Alienation and anomie]: see Emile Durkheim, The
Division of Labor in Society, George Simpson, trans. (1933; Free Press, 1960); Erich Fromm, The Sane Society (Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1955), ch. 5 and passim; Karl Mannheim, Man and Society in an Age of Reconstruction, Edward Shils, trans. (Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co., 1940); Wilbert E. Moore, Industrial Relations and the Social Order (Macmillan, 1951), esp. chs. 9-10; Robert Blauner, Alienation and Freedom: The Factory Worker and His Industry (University of Chicago Press, 1964), esp. chs. 2, 5; Seligman, Notorious Victory; William A. Faunce, “Automation and the Division of Labor,” in Marcson, pp. 79-96; Faunce, “Industrialization and Alienation,” in ibid., pp. 400-16; Melvin Seeman, “On the Meaning of Alienation,” in ibid., pp. 381-94.

  [“Fortune, Chance, Luck”]: Merton, Social Theory and Social Structure: Toward the Godification of Theory and Research (Free Press, 1949), p. 138.

  [Seeman on anomie]: Seeman, pp. 388-89.

  275-6 [Marcuse on values and labor]: quoted in Douglas Kellner, Herbert Marcuse and the Crisis of Marxism (University of California Press, 1984), p. 140; see also ibid., esp. chs. 6, 10; Marcuse, “Aggressiveness in Advanced Industrial Society,” in Marcuse, Negations: Essays in Critical Theory, Jeremy J. Shapiro, trans. (Beacon Press, 1968), pp. 248-68; Marcuse, Eros and Civilization: A Philosophical Inquiry into Freud (Beacon Press, 1955); H. Stuart Hughes, The Sea Change: The Migration of Social Thought,1930-1965 (Harper, 1975), pp. 70-88.

  The Language of Freedom

  276 [“Children of freedom”]: quoted in Adam B. Ulam, The Rivals: America and Russia Since World War II (Viking, 1971), p. 157.

  [“Dynamic center”], quoted in John P. Mallan, “Luce’s Hot-and-Cold War,” New Republic, vol. 129, no. 9 (September 28, 1953), p. 12.

  [“Founding purpose”]: Luce, “National Purpose and Cold War,” in John K. Jessup, ed., The Ideas of Henry Luce (Atheneum, 1969), pp. 131-33, quoted at pp. 131-32. [“Elementary truth”]: quoted in Richard H. Pells, The Liberal Mind in a Conservative Age: American Intellectuals in the 19)40s and 1950s (Harper, 1985), pp. 124-25.