American Experiment

by James Macgregor Burns

  [Abortion backlash]: Luker, chs. 6-9 passim; Andrew H. Merton, Enemies of Choice: The Right-to-Life Movement and Its Threat to Abortion (Beacon Press, 1981); Petchesky, chs. 7-8; Benshoof; Andrea Dworkin, Right-Wing Women (Coward-McCann, 1983), ch. 3 passim; Kerree and Hess, pp. 130-39.

  [Luker on backlash’s meaning]: Luker, pp. 193-94, quoted at p. 193.

  449 [Rape]: Susan Brownmiller, Against Our Will: Men, Women and Rape (Simon and Schuster, 1975); Andra Medea and Kathleen Thompson, Against Rape (Farrar, Straus & Giroux, 1974); Susan Griffin, “Rape: The All-American Crime,” Ramparts, vol. 10, no. 3 (September 1971), pp. 26-35; Griffin, Rape: The Power of Consciousness (Harper, 1979); New York Radical Feminists, Rape: The First Sourcebook for Women, Noreen Connell and Cassandra Wilson, eds. (New American Library, 1974); Diane E. H. Russell, The Politics of Rape: The Victim’s Perspective (Stein & Day, 1984); Rosemarie Tong, Women, Sex, and the Law (Rowman & Allenheld, 1984), ch. 4; Margolis, pp. 252-59.

  [“All the hatred”]: Medea and Thompson, p. 11.

  [“Masculine ideology”]: see Brownmiller, pp. 12, 14, 396.

  [Feminist mobilization against rape]: Jane Benson, “Take Back the Night” (unpublished manuscript, 1983); Our Bodies, Ourselves, ch. 8; New York Radical Feminists; Susan Pascalé et al., “Self-Defense for Women,” in Morgan, Sisterhood, pp. 469-77; Medea and Thompson, pp. 125-30, 144-51; Carol V. Horos, Rape (Dell/Banbury, 1981). [“Speakable crime”]: Brownmiller, p. 396.

  [Pornography]: Laura Lederer, ed., Take Back the Night: Women on Pornography (Morrow, 1980); Ferree and Hess, pp. 105-7; The Report of the Commission on Obscenity and Pornography (Bantam, 1970); Susan Griffin, Pornography and Silence: Culture’s Revenge Against Nature (Harper, 1981); Alan Soble, Pornography: Marxism, Feminism, and the Future of Sexuality (Yale University Press, 1986); Ray C. Rist, ed., The Pornography Controversy: Changing Standards in American Life (Transaction Books, 1975); Long, ch. 1; Brownmiller, pp. 392-96.

  450 [Lesbianism]: Sidney Abbott and Barbara Love, Sappho Was a Right-On Woman: A Liberated View of Lesbianism (Stein & Day, 1972); Abbott and Love, “Is Women’s Liberation a Lesbian Plot?,” in Vivian Gornick and Barbara K. Moran, eds., Women in Sexist Society: Studies in Power and Powerlessness (Basic Books, 1971 ), pp. 436-51; Jill Johnston, Lesbian Nation: The Feminist Solution (Simon and Schuster, 1973); Estelle B. Freedman et al., eds., The Lesbian Issue: Essays from SIGNS (University of Chicago Press, 1985); Free man, pp. 134-42; Anne Koedt, “Lesbianism and Feminism,” in Koedt el al., pp. 246-58; Radicalesbians, “The Woman Identified Woman,” in ibid., pp. 240-45; Yates, pp. 108-10.

  [“What is a lesbian?”]: Radicalesbians, p. 240.

  [“Carried the women’s movement”]: quoted in Abbott and Love, Sappho, p. 146. [Police raid on gay bar]: see ibid., pp. 159-60.

  [“Doubly outcast”]: Abbott and Love, “Lesbian Plot,” p. 443.

  [“Economic independence”]: Abbott and Love, Sappho, p. 136.

  [“Lavender menace”]: quoted in ibid., p. 110.

  [Congress to Unite Women, 1970]: ibid., pp. 113-16.

  [New York NOW president and lavender armbands]: ibid., pp. 121-22; see also Friedan, It Changed My Life, pp. 158-59.

  450-1 [1971 NOW resolution on lesbians]: quoted in Freeman, p. 99; see also Abbott and Love, Sappho, pp. 125-34.

  451 [“Primary cornerstone of male supremacy”]: Nancy Myron and Charlotte Bunch, eds., Lesbianism and the Women’s Movement (Diana Press, 1975), p. 10.

  [“Vanguardism”]: Freeman, p. 138; see also Koedt, “Lesbianism and Feminism.” [Black feminism]: Frances M. Beal, “Double Jeopardy: To Be Black and Female,” in Morgan, Sisterhood, pp. 340-53; Firestone, ch. 5; Phyllis Marynick Palmer, “White Women/Black Women: The Dualism of Female Identity and Experience in the United States,” Feminist Studies, vol. 9, no. 1 (Spring 1983), pp. 151-70; Pauli Murray, “The Liberation of Black Women,” in Thompson, pp. 87-102; Angela Davis, Women, Race & Class (Random House, 1981); Cellestine Ware, “Black Feminism,” in Koedt et al., pp. 81-84; Kay Lindsey, “The Black Woman as Woman,” in Toni Cade, ed., The Black Woman (New American Library, 1970), pp. 85-89; Toni Cade, “On the Issue of Roles,” in ibid., pp. 101-10; Gloria I. Joseph and Jill Lewis, Common Differences: Conflicts in Black and White Feminist Perspectives (Anchor Press, 1981 ); Audre Lorde, Sister Outsider: Essays and Speeches (Crossing Press, 1984); Ware, Woman Power, ch. 2; Bell Hooks, Ain’t I a Woman: Black Women and Feminism (South End Press, 1981). [“Organize around those things”]: “Black Feminism: A New Mandate,” Ms., vol. 2, no. 11 (May 1974), pp. 97-100, quoted at p. 97.

  [National Black Feminist Organization]: ibid.; Freeman, pp. 156-57; Joseph and Lewis, pp. 33-34.

  [“We were married”]: “Black Feminism: A New Mandate,” p. 98.

  [“Male-dominated media image”]: “Statement of Purpose,” ibid., p. 99.

  [“Committed to working”]: Combahee River Collective, “A Black Feminist Statement,” in Cherrie Moraga and Gloria Anzaldúa, eds., This Bridge Called My Back: Writings By Radical Women of Color (Persephone Press, 1981), pp. 210-18, quoted at p. 217.

  452 [Latina feminism]: “Women of ‘La Raza’ Unite!,” in Angela G. Dorenkamp et al., eds., Images of Women in American Popular Culture (Harcourt, 1985), pp. 430-32; Mirta Vidal, Chicanas Speak Out: Women—New Voice of La Raza (Pathfinder Press, 1971); Sylvia Alicia Gonzales, “The Chicana Perspective: A Design for Self-Awareness,” in Arnulfo D. Trejo, ed., The Chicanos: As We See Ourselves (University of Arizona Press, 1979), pp. 81-99; Morgan, Sisterhood, pp. 376-84; Gilberto López y Rivas, The Chicanos: Life and Struggles of the Mexican Minority in the United States, López y Rivas and Elizabeth Martínez, eds. and trans. (Monthly Review Press, 1973), pp. 168-74.

  [National Women’s Conference]: Lindsy Van Gelder, “Four Days That Changed the World,” Ms., vol. 6, no. 9 (March 1978), pp. 52-57, 86-93; U.S. National Commission on the Observance of International Women’s Year, The Spirit of Houston: The First National Women’s Conference (U.S. Government Printing Office, 1978); Alice S. Rossi, Feminists in Politics: A Panel Analysis of the First National Women’s Conference (Academic Press, 1982).

  [“My name is Susan B. Anthony”]: quoted in Van Gelder, p. 90.

  [Minority resolution]: Spirit of Houston, pp. 155-60.

  [“Simultaneity of oppressions”]: Barbara Smith, “Introduction,” in Smith, ed., Home Girls: A Black Feminist Anthology (Kitchen Table: Women of Color Press, 1983), p. xxxiii; see also Bernice Johnson Reagon, “Coalition Politics: Turning the Century,” in ibid., pp. 356-68.

  453 [“Change means growth”]: Audre Lorde, “Age, Race, Class, and Sex: Women Redefining Difference,” in Lorde, pp. 114-23, quoted at p. 123.

  The Personal Is Political

  [Analysis of women’s movement]: see Freeman, pp. 1-70 and ch. 7 passim, and sources cited therein; see also Ferree and Hess, pp. 1-27 and ch. 8.

  [Rise in percentage of women in workforce, 1947-68]: Freeman, p. 30; see also Chafe, esp. pp. 218-25, 234-37.

  [Freeman on occupational rewards]: Freeman, p. 31.

  454 [“Hot-house plants”]: Alice S. Rossi, quoted in ibid., p. 27.

  [“Rage of Women”]: ibid., p. 27, n. 40.

  [Varieties of feminist ideology]: see Alison Jaggar, “Political Philosophies of Women’s Liberation,” in Mary Vetterling-Braggin et al., eds., Feminism and Philosophy (Rowman and Littlefield, 1977), pp. 5-21; see also Jaggar and Paula Rothenberg Struhl, eds., Feminist Frameworks: Alternative Theoretical Accounts of the Relations Between Women and Men (McGraw-Hill, 1978); Ferree and Hess, pp. 41-43; Yates.

  454 [Black and Maoist origins of consciousness-raising]: see Yates, p. 103.

  [Growth and organizational difficulties of NOW]: Freeman, pp. 86-97; Carden, ch. 9 passim.

  [Anti-leadership ethic and its difficulties]: see Joreen, “The Tyranny of Structurelessness,” in Koedt et al., pp. 285-99; Carden, ch. 7 and pp. 128-32; Freeman, pp. 119-29, 142-46; Hole and Levine, pp. 157-61; Galper and Washburne.

  [“Pos
session of the self”]: Vivian Gornick, “Feminist Writers,” in Gornick, Essays, pp. 164-70, quoted at p. 169.

  [“So many of our struggles”]: Leah Fritz, Dreamers and Dealers: An Intimate Appraisal of the Women’s Movement (Beacon Press, 1980), pp. 16-17.

  [“Tyranny of structurelessness”]: Joreen, “Tyranny.”

  456 [“Euphoric period”]: “Editorial: Notes from the Third Year,” December 1971, in Koedt et al., p. 300.

  [Feminist “stars”]: see Cardin, pp. 89-90; Freeman, pp. 120-21; Joreen, pp. 292-93; Claudia Dreifus, “The Selling of a Feminist,” in Koedt et al., pp. 358-61; see also Todd Gitlin, The Whole World is Watching: Mass Media in the Making & Unmaking of the New Left (University of California Press, 1980), ch. 5.

  [“Sending double signals”]: Millett, Flying (Knopf, 1974), p. 92.

  [Millett’s career in Time]: see Time, vol. 96, no. 9 (August 31, 1970); and “Women’s Lib: A Second Look,” Time, vol. 96, no. 24 (December 14, 1970), p. 50; see also Abbott and Love, Sappho, pp. 119-25; Millett, Flying.

  457 [Feminists and labor and professional organizations]: Hole and Levine, pp. 98-107, 338-55, 362-71; Philip S. Koner, Women and the American Labor Movement: From World War I to the Present (Free Press, 1979-80), vol. 2, chs. 24-27; Kay Klotzburger, “Political Action by Academic Women,” in Rossi and Calderwood, pp. 359-91; Anne M. Briscoe, “Phenomenon of the Seventies: The Women’s Caucuses,” Signs, vol. 4, no. 1 (Autumn 1978), pp. 152-58.

  457-8 [Feminists and religion]: Mary Daly, The Church and the Second Sex (Harper, 1968); Daly, Beyond God the Father: Toward a Philosophy of Women’s Liberation (Beacon Press, 1973); Matilda Joslyn Gage, Woman, Church & State (1893; reprinted by Persephone Press, 1980): Yates, pp. 65-73, 140-41; Hole and Levine, ch. 11 passim.

  458 [“Their hierarchical status”]: quoted in Freeman, p. 163.

  [Women and the 1972 Democratic convention]: Byron E. Shafer, Quiet Revolution: The Struggle for the Democratic Party and the Shaping of Post-Reform Politics (Russell Sage, 1983), chs. 6-7, 17 passim: Denis G. Sullivan et al., Explorations in Convention Decision Making: The Democratic Party in the 1970s (W. H. Freeman, 1976); Theodore H. White, The Making of the President 1972 (Atheneum, 1973), chs. 3, 7; Wilma E. McGrath and John W. Soule, “Rocking the Cradle or Rocking the Boat: Women at the 1972 Democratic National Convention,” Social Science Quarterly, vol. 55, no.1 (June 1974), pp. 141-50; see also Kristi Andersen, “Working Women and Political Participation, 1952-1972,” American Journal of Political Science, vol. 19, no. 3 (August 1975), pp. 439-53.

  [Black delegates at 1968 and 1972 Democratic conventions]: Steven F. Lawson, In Pursuit of Power: Southern Blacks and Electoral Politics, 1965-1982 (Columbia University Press, 1985), pp. 195-96.

  [Feminist disappointments at convention]: see Shirley Chisholm, The Good Fight (Harper, 1973), pp. 128-31.

  [ERA] Janet K. Boles, The Politics of the Equal Rights Amendment: Conflict and the Decision Process (Longman, 1979); Boles, “Building Support for the Equal Rights Amendment,” in James David Barber and Barbara Kellerman, eds., Women Leaders in American Politics (Prentice-Hall, 1986), pp. 37-41:Hole and Levine, pp. 54-77; Ferree and Hess, pp. 125-30; Equal Rights Amendment Project of the California Commission on the Status of Women, ed., Impact ERA: Limitations and Possibilities (Les Femmes Publishing, 1976); Yates, pp. 52-58; Mathews, “New Feminism,” pp. 416-19; Sylvia Ann Hewlett. A Lesser Life: The Myth of Women’s Liberation in America (Morrow, 1986), ch. 9; Foner, vol. 2, pp. 482-87; Lisa Cronin Wohl, “White Gloves and Combat Boots: The Fight for ERA,” Civil Liberties Review, vol. 1, no. 4 (Fall 1974), pp. 77-86; Wohl, “Phyllis Schlafly: ‘The Sweetheart of the Silent Majority.’ ” Ms., vol. 2, no. 9 (March 1974), pp. 54-57, 85-89; Sarah Slavin, ed., “The Equal Rights Amendment: The Politics and Processes of Ratification of the 27th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution,” Women & Politics, vol. 2, nos. 1-2 (Spring-Summer 1982); see also Donald G. Mathews and Jane De Hart Mathews, “Gender and the U.S. Constitution,” paper delivered at the annual meeting of the American Historical Association, Washington, D.C., December 28, 1987.

  [“Now forced women!”]: quoted in Mathews, “New Feminism,” p. 418; see also Rebecca E. Klatch, Women of the New Right (Temple University Press, 1987). [Achievements of women’s movement]: Mathews, “New Feminism,” pp. 419-21; Ferree and Hess, chs. 7-8; Hole and Levine, pp. 397-400; Margolis, esp. Epilogue; Carden, pp. 158-71 ; O’Connor; Gelb and Palley, esp. ch. 8; Judith M. Bardwick, In Transition: How Feminism, Sexual Liberation, and the Search for Self-Fulfillment Have Altered Our Lives (Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1979); Hewlett.

  [1972 campaign]: White, chs. 8-13; Ripon Society and Clifford W. Brown, Jr., Jaws of Victory (Little, Brown, 1974), part 1 passim; Edward W. Knappman et al., eds., Campaign 72: Press Opinion from New Hampshire to November (Facts on File, 1973), part 3; Irwin Unger, The Movement: A History of the American New Left, 1952-1972 (Dodd, Mead, 1975), pp. 199-202.

  [1972 election results]: White, pp. 342-43, 372-73 (Appendix A).

  460-1 [Women in 1972 election]: Andersen, “Working Women.”

  461 [King’s studies]: see David J. Garrow, “The Intellectual Development of Martin Luther King, Jr.: Influences and Commentaries,” Union Seminary Quarterly Review, vol. 40 (January 1986), pp. 5-20.

  [Evaluations of sixties movements]: see Charles Perrow, “The Sixties Observed,” in Mayer N. Zald and John D. McCarthy, eds., The Dynamics of Social Movements: Resource Mobilization, Social Control, and Tactics (Winthrop Publishers, 1979), pp. 192-211; Roberta Ash, Social Movements in America (Markham, 1972), ch. 9; Mathews, “New Feminism,” pp. 398-412; Donald Von Eschen et al., “The Disintegration of the Negro Non-violent Movement,” Journal of Peace Research, vol. 6 (1969), pp. 215-34; Anthony Oberschall, “The Decline of the 1960s Social Movements,” in Louis Kries-burg, ed., Research in Social Movements, Conflict and Change (JAI Press, 1978), pp. 257-89; Aldon D. Morris, The Origins of the Civil Rights Movement: Black Communities Organizing for Change (Free Press, 1984), chs. 1, 11, and passim; Clayborne Carson, In Struggle: SNCC and the Black Awakening of the 1960s (Harvard University Press, 1981), ch. 18 and passim; Frances Fox Piven and Richard A. Cloward, Poor People’s Movements: Why They Succeed, How They Fail (Pantheon, 1977), ch. 4; Chafe, part 3 passim; Jo Freeman, “Women and Public Policy: An Overview,” in Ellen Boneparth, ed., Women, Power and Policy (Pergamon, 1982), pp. 47-67; Wini Breines, The Great Refusal: Community and Organization in the New Left, 1962-1968 (Praeger, 1982); Gitlin, Whole World; Gitlin, Sixties, ch. 19; Arthur Schweitzer, The Age of Charisma (Nelson-Hall, 1984), pp. 210-21; August Meier and Elliott Rudwick, “Negro Protest and Urban Unrest,” Social Science Quarterly, vol. 49, no. 3 (December 1968), pp. 438-43.

  11. Prime Time: Peking and Moscow

  465 [Davis on Nixon]: Davis, “Richard Milhous Nixon,” in John A. Garraty, ed., Encyclopedia of American Biography (Harper, 1974), pp. 811-15, quoted at p. 812; on Nixon and his character, see also Stephen E. Ambrose, Nixon: The Education of a Politician, 1913-1962 (Simon and Schuster, 1987), esp. chs. 1-7; Garry Wills, Nixon Agonistes: The Crisis of the Self-Made Man (Houghton Mifflin, 1970); Fawn M. Brodie, Richard Nixon: The Shaping of His Character (Norton, 1981 ); Eli S. Chesen, President Nixon’s Psychiatric Profile (Peter H. Wyden, 1973); David Abrahamsen, Nixon vs. Nixon: An Emotional Tragedy (Farrar, Straus & Giroux, 1977); Bruce Mazlish, In Search of Nixon: A Psychohistorical Inquiry (Basic Books, 1972); Lloyd Etheredge, “Hardball Politics: A Model,” Political Psychology, vol. 1, no. 1 (Spring 1979), pp. 3-26; Mauricio Mazon, “Young Richard Nixon: A Study in Political Precocity,” Historian, vol. 41, no. 1 (November 1978), pp. 21-40.

  [“What’ll I wear today?”]: Washington Post, February 15, 1956, p. 14.

  466 [Barber on Nixon]: James D. Barber, The Presidential Character: Predicting Performance in the White House (Prentice-Hall, 1972), part 5.

  466 [Mazlish on Nixon]: Mazlish, p. 74. [Wills on Nixon]: Wills, p. 406.

  [Nixon’s domestic policy]: Herbert Stei
n, Presidential Economics: The Making of Economic Policy from Roosevelt to Reagan and Beyond (Simon and Schuster, 1984), ch. 5; A. James Reichley, Conservatives in an Age of Change: The Nixon and Ford Administrations (Brookings Institution, 1981), pp. 68-78, chs. 7-11; Theodore H. White, Breach of Faith: The Fall of Richard Nixon (Atheneum, 1975), p. 139; Rowland Evans, Jr., and Robert D. Novak, Nixon in the White House: The Frustration of Power (Random House, 1971), chs. 6-8.

  [1971 State of the Union]: January 22, 1971, in Public Papers of the Presidents of the United States: Richard Nixon (U.S. Government Printing Office, 1971-75), vol. 3, pp. 50-58, quoted at p. 52.

  467 [Burns on Nixon’s quick decsion]: Reichley, p. 138.

  [Dispute over welfare reform]: ibid., pp. 130-43, Ehrlichman quoted at p. 139. [“A coherent vision”]: First Annual Report to Congress on United States Foreign Policy for the 1970’s, February 18, 1970, in Nixon Public Papers, vol. 2, pp. 116-90, quoted at p. 124.

  467-8 [Nixon’s foreign policy advisers and apparatus]: Seymour M. Hersh, The Price of Power: Kissinger in the Nixon White House (Summit, 1983), chs. 1-3; Henry Kissinger, White House Years (Little, Brown, 1979), ch. 2 passim: Reichley, pp. 64-68; Marvin Kalb and Bernard Kalb, Kissinger (Little, Brown, 1974), ch. 5; Roger Morris, Uncertain Greatness: Henry Kissinger and American Foreign Policy (Harper, 1977), pp. 78-93.

  Finding China

  468 [Nixon as anticommunist]: Brodie, chs. 13-17; Mazlish, pp. 81-87; Richard M. Nixon, Six Crises (Doubleday, 1962), sect. 1 and passim; Nixon, Memoirs (Grosset & Dunlap, 1978), pp. 343-44; Earl Mazo, Richard Nixon: A Political and Personal Portrait (Harper, 1959).