Between Slavery and Freedom

by Julie Winch

  New Mexico, 86, 90

  New Netherland, 11

  New Orleans, 4, 18, 46, 47, 48, 53, 64, 70, 78, 105–6, 126

  New York, 11–12, 42, 43, 91, 106

  New York City, 11, 12, 24, 27, 28, 40, 42–43, 53, 55, 63, 64, 77, 106–7, 113, 117, 122, 125, 126, 127

  New York Manumission Society, 68, 80

  Newport, Rhode Island, 14, 16, 36

  Newport African Union, 36, 37, 53, 57

  newspapers, black-owned, 78, 113–15

  night soil men, black, 69

  North Carolina, 8, 24, 26, 44, 45, 73, 77, 89

  North Star (newspaper), 78

  Northup, Solomon, 75

  Northwest Ordinance, 35, 49

  Nova Scotia, 28

  Noyes Academy, Canaan, New Hampshire, 79

  Ohio, 49

  Omaha, Nebraska, 91

  Oregon, 90

  Orleans Territory, 47

  oyster cellars, black-owned, 64, 119

  Pacific Northwest, 90

  Parrott, Russell (printer), 110

  passports, refusal to issue to blacks, 68, 130–32

  Payne, Reverend Daniel Alexander, 67

  Peg (free woman of color), 97

  Penn, William, 13

  Pennsylvania, 13, 17, 20, 29–30, 42, 98–99, 108–9; Gradual Abolition Law (1780), 29–30

  Pennsylvania Abolition Society, 29–30, 67, 68, 80

  Pensacola, Florida, 49

  Peronneau, Nancy, 99–100

  Peronneau, Richard (carpenter), 99–100

  personal liberty laws, 87

  “Peter the Doctor” (free man), 12

  Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, 13, 24, 27, 34, 36–37, 40, 42, 52–56, 59, 64, 73, 76, 78, 97, 98, 104–5, 113, 123, 124, 128

  Philadelphia Female Anti-Slavery Society, 121

  physicians, black, 66, 126, 129. See also bleeders; dentists; healers; midwives

  Pico, Andreas (Mexican general), 83

  Pico, Pio (Mexican governor), 83

  Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, 126

  plaçage, 70

  planters, free black, 61–62, 123

  Poor, Salem (soldier), 25

  porters, black, 69

  Portsmouth, New Hampshire, 15, 31, 101

  Potter, Eliza (hairdresser), 66

  Presbyterians, black, 52

  Prince Hall Masons, 55

  privateers, black, 27, 28, 34

  prostitution, 69–70

  Providence, Rhode Island, 55, 73

  public schools, 79–80

  public space, black access to, 73, 128

  public transportation, segregation on, 75, 125, 127–28

  Quakers. See Society of Friends

  race riots, 73

  Raleigh, North Carolina, 72–73

  registration, required of free blacks, 45, 73, 74, 108–9

  Remond family (Salem, Massachusetts), 66

  Remond, John (caterer), 64, 118–19, 131

  Remond, Nancy Lenox (baker and hairdresser), 66

  Remond, Sarah Parker, 130–32

  resettlement (voluntary), 36, 37, 92, 126–27; in Africa, 57–58, 59; on the American frontier, 58, 59; in Britain’s West Indian colonies, 72; in Canada, 72; in Haiti, 71–72, 88, 89, 113. See also American Colonization Society; Liberia; Sierra Leone

  residential segregation, 70–71

  Resolute Beneficial Society (Washington, D.C.), 110–11

  Rhode Island, 14, 15, 20, 25, 26, 31, 42, 98–99

  Rhode Island Black Regiment. See First Rhode Island Regiment

  Richmond, Virginia, 48

  Roberts, Benjamin, 79

  Roberts, Fred (runaway slave), 122

  Roberts, John Jenkins (merchant), 71, 88

  Roberts, Robert (writer), 64

  Roberts, Sarah, 79

  Rock, John S. (doctor and lawyer), 66, 129

  Royal African Company, British, 8

  Royal Navy, British, 22, 27

  Russwurm, John Brown, 77–78, 113–14

  sailors, black, 14, 16, 22, 27, 54, 68–69, 75, 89, 112, 115, 116–17, 128

  St. Augustine, Florida, 2

  Saint Domingue, 40, 41, 46. See also Haiti

  St. George’s Methodist Episcopal Church, Philadelphia, 52

  St. Louis, Missouri, 53, 65, 70, 74, 89, 129–30

  St. Thomas’s African Episcopal Church, Philadelphia, 52

  Salem, Massachusetts, 64, 66, 118–19, 131

  Salem, Peter (soldier), 25

  San Francisco, California, 83, 125–26

  Savannah, Georgia, 64, 122

  schools, black, 17, 55, 67, 68, 78–80, 110–11

  Scott, Dred, 91–92

  Scott, Harriet, 91–92

  second-hand clothing, black retailers of, 65, 115

  “servant,” vagueness of term, 13–14

  Sharp Street Methodist Church, Baltimore, 107

  shipowners, black, 69, 83, 116–17, 125–26

  Sierra Leone, 28, 36, 37, 57, 58

  siete partidas, 2

  slave catchers, 42, 86, 89, 121, 122

  slave owners, black, 3, 6, 9, 41, 47, 62, 86, 100, 123

  Smith, James McCune (physician), 66

  Society of Friends (Quakers), 13, 17, 29, 30, 57

  soldiers, black men as: in colonial era, 2, 3, 4, 9, 11, 18; in Revolutionary War, 23–27, 28–29, 33, 101, 108, 118; volunteer to serve, 93, 101, 105–6, 128, 129; in War of 1812, 47, 48

  Somersett, James, 19

  Somersett case (1772), 19

  Sons of Liberty, 22

  the South. See Lower South; Upper South; individual colonies and states

  South Carolina, 8–9, 10, 20, 26–27, 32, 33, 34, 40, 45, 74, 88, 89, 99–100, 111–12, 118

  Spanish: as colonizers, 1, 46; as slaveholders, 2, 3, 48

  Spanish Seven-Part Law. See siete partidas

  Stanly, Benjamin, 123–24

  Stanly, John Carruthers (planter), 123–24

  Stanly, Joseph, 123–24

  steamboat stewards, black, 64–65

  Stephens, George E. (writer), 128

  Stewart, Charles (slave owner), 19

  Stewart, James W. (businessman), 117

  Stewart, Maria W. (orator), 117–18

  stores, black-owned, 65, 115, 118, 120

  Stowe, Harriet Beecher, 87

  street vendors, black, 64

  Sturgis, Stokeley (slave owner), 102

  Susanne (slave), 129

  Talcott Street Church, Hartford, Connecticut, 53

  taxes, discriminatory, 45, 49, 73, 112

  teachers, black, 67, 68, 127, 129

  Temple Street Church, New Haven, Connecticut, 53

  Tennessee, 45, 74, 89

  Texas, 2, 82, 86

  Thacher, George (congressman), 104

  Thomas, James (barber), 74, 89, 124–25

  Thomas, Sally (laundress), 74, 124

  Thompson, Harriet. See Clamorgan, Harriet

  Thompson, Mary, 74

  Toussaint L’Ouverture, François Dominique, 40

  Three-Fifths Compromise, 35

  Traveller, Henry, 98

  Trinidad, 72

  Turner, Nat, 72

  Tye, Colonel (soldier), 24

  Uncle Tom’s Cabin (Stowe), 87

  undertakers, black, 64

  Upper South, 43, 44, 45, 49, 63, 71, 73, 107. See also individual colonies and states

  U.S. Navy, 69

  U.S. Supreme Court, 87, 91–92, 129

  Utah, 86

  Vermont, 15, 29, 32, 41

  Vesey, Denmark, 74, 111–12

  Vigilance Committees, 81

  Violetas (runaway slave), 98

  Virginia, 5–8, 20, 23, 24, 26, 33, 40, 44, 54, 89, 95–96

  Virginia John (runaway slave), 97

  voting rights, 42, 43, 75, 76, 82, 90, 92, 106–7, 130. See also disfranchisement

  Walker, David (writer), 65, 77, 115–16, 117

  Walker, Quock, 30

  War of 1812, 47, 58, 69, 108

  “war
ning out,” 15–16, 31, 32, 42

  Washington, George, 24, 25, 28

  Washington, D.C., 54, 55, 58, 65, 66, 78, 109, 110

  Washington (territory), 90

  Way, Flora, 122

  White, Jacob C. Sr. (bleeder and dentist), 67

  Wilkinson, Robert Jerome (barber), 74–75

  Willson, John (banker), 122–23

  Willson, Joseph (writer), 71, 122–23

  Wilmington, North Carolina, 115, 122

  Wilmot, David (congressman), 83

  Wilmot Proviso, 83

  Wisconsin (territory), 92

  women, status of free black, 77, 86, 117–18

  yellow fever epidemic (1793), 55

  About the Author

  Julie Winch is professor of history at the University of Massachusetts Boston, where she has taught since 1985. She has published five books on the lives of free people of African descent in eighteenth- and nineteenth-century America, including The Clamorgans: One Family’s History of Race in America and A Gentleman of Color: The Life of James Forten. She has been the recipient of fellowships from the National Endowment for the Humanities, the American Antiquarian Society, the John Carter Brown Library, Mystic Seaport, and the Beinecke Library. Her biography of James Forten won the American Historical Association’s Wesley-Logan Prize.