Plotting Hitler's Death

by Joachim C. Fest

  Kleist-Schmenzin, Ewald von (1890-1945)

  Estate owner, lawyer, and conservative politician with strong Christian and monarchical beliefs. Actively combated National Socialism in the dying days of the Weimar Republic. Twice arrested for short periods in May and June 1933. Traveled to London for political discussions in 1938 at the behest of Beck’s group. Met Goerdeler in 1942 and 1943 and agreed to support a coup. Was privy to Stauffenberg’s plans and approved the assassination at­tempt. Was the prospective political representative in the Stettin military district. Arrested after July 20 and condemned to death by the People’s Court in March 1945. Executed on April 9 in Plötzensee prison.

  Kleist-Schmenzin, Ewald Heinrich von (b. 1922)

  Son of the above. Lieutenant in the infantry. In early 1944 volunteered, like Bussche, to blow himself and Hitler up during a public ceremony. At the instigation of Fritz-Dietlof von der Schulenburg, went to Bendlerstrasse on July 20 to serve as the conspirators’ adjutant. The ensuing preliminary inves­tigation of him was broken off on December 12, 1944, and he was sent to the front, where he managed to survive the war.

  Kluge, Hans Günther von (1882-1944)

  Career officer. Appointed field marshal in 1940. Commander in chief of Army Group Center from December 1941 to October 1943. Strongly influ­enced by Tresckow while with Army Group Center but dodged active partic­ipation in plans for a coup, although he realized that Germany was headed for catastrophe. In July 1944 became commander in chief in the West and commander in chief of Army Group B. Dismissed on August 18, 1944, be­cause he failed to report the conspiracy and was suspected of seeking to negotiate with the Western Allies. Committed suicide rather than face trial in Germany.

  Knochen, Helmut (b. 1910)

  SS Standartenführer. Chief of security police in Paris from 1940 to 1944. Clashed with the German military administration in France under Stülpnagel. Held in custody for a while by the conspirators in Paris on July 20, 1944. Condemned to life imprisonment in 1946 by a British military tribunal for having executed captured pilots. Sentenced to death by a mili­tary tribunal in Paris in 1954. Granted a pardon in 1962.

  Kordt, Erich (1903-70)

  Lawyer specializing in administrative law. Diplomat. From 1936 to 1938 counselor in the German embassy in London, where he established political contacts for the resistance. Chief of the Bureau of Ministers in the German Foreign Office from 1938 to 1941. Planned to attack Hitler in November 1939. Was German envoy in Tokyo and Nanjing from 1941 to 1945. Member of the resistance circle within the Foreign Office. Became a private lecturer at the University of Cologne in 1951. Later served in the state government in Dusseldorf.

  Kordt, Theodor (1893-1962)

  Lawyer specializing in administrative law. Diplomat. Brother of Erich Kordt. Entered the foreign service in 1923. German ambassador in London in 1938-39. Attempted, with his brother, to persuade the British government to make a public statement warning Germany about the danger of a world war. Informed the British of Hitler’s intention to go to war, but their efforts, like those of many other members of the resistance, foundered on Britain’s appeasement policy. Ambassador in Bern after 1939. Made political contacts for the resistance at his foreign postings. From 1953 to 1958 served as ambassador to Greece for the Federal Republic of Germany.

  Leber, Julius (1891-1945)

  Social Democratic politician. Volunteered to serve in World War I and be­came an officer. Deputy in the Reichstag from 1924 to 1933. Official SPD spokesman on defense policy. Imprisoned from 1933 to 1937 in Wolfenbüttel prison and the Esterwegen and Sachsenhausen concentration camps. Worked in the private sector from 1938 to 1944. After the Casablanca Con­ference in January 1943, maintained, in contrast to many of his friends in the resistance, that the Allies would never drop their demand for unconditional surrender. Was close to the Kreisau Circle and had contacts with other Social Democrats. Stauffenberg preferred him to Goerdeler as federal chancellor after the coup. Arrested on July 5, 1944, alter being betrayed by a Communist resistance circle that had been infiltrated. Sentenced to death by the People’s Court on October 20, 1944, and executed in Plötzensee prison on January 5, 1945.

  Leuschner, Wilhelm (1888-1944)

  Social Democrat and trade union leader. Minister of the interior in Hesse from 1929 to 1933. Acting chairman of the General German Trade Union Federation. Held in a concentration camp in 1933-34. Worked as a small manufacturer in Berlin from 1934 to 1944. Active in the underground. Strove to form a single, united labor union. Chosen in 1944 to become vice-chancellor of the Reich after the coup. When his wife was arrested in August 1944, turned himself over to the Gestapo. Executed in Plötzensee prison on September 29.

  Mackensen, August von (1848-1945)

  Field marshal. The oldest of the German generals. Attempted to salvage the honor of Generals Kurt von Schleicher and Kurt von Bredow, murdered in the Röhm putsch. Together with Hammerstein wrote a letter of protest to Hindenburg, which apparently was not delivered.

  Manstein, Erich von (1887-1973)

  Field marshal. From 1935 to 1938 chief of operations on the army general staff. Appointed commander in chief of the Eleventh Army in 1941. Com­mander in chief of Army Group Don and Army Group South from 1942 to 1944. Dismissed in 1944 when he urged retreat on the eastern front. Consid­ered a leading strategist and field commander. Despite the exhortations of Beck and Stauffenberg, refused to turn against Hitler, even after Stalingrad. Considered himself “just a soldier” who had to obey. In 1949 sentenced by a British court to eighteen years in prison for failing to protect the civilian population. Released in 1953. Later a military adviser to the West German government.

  Mertz von Quirnheim, Albrecht Ritter (1905-44)

  Career officer with the rank of colonel. Had himself assigned to the SA after the Nazi seizure of power. An early friend of Stauffenberg’s and succeeded him in June 1944 as Olbricht’s chief of staff. Deeply involved in planning the coup, especially Operation Valkyrie. Present at Bendlerstrasse on the eve­ning of July 20 and executed there that night.

  Mierendorff, Carlo (1897-1943)

  Politician and journalist. Joined the Social Democrats in 1920. In Hesse became the chief press officer for Interior Minister Wilhelm Leuschner. Became a Reichstag deputy in 1930. Held in a concentration camp from 1933 to 1938. Because of his enormous popularity, which did not fade during his years in the camp, was ordered after his release to take another surname. Inspired by his early enthusiasm for literature, he chose Willemer, the pseudonym of a character in one of Goethe’s works. Through Adolf Reichwein met Helmuth von Moltke and the Kreisau Circle, among whom his impressive, forceful personality soon earned him a leading role. Reichwein and others thought he would make the best representative of the new Ger­many. Killed in December 1943 in an air raid on Leipzig.

  Moltke, Count Helmuth James von (1907-45)

  Lawyer. The great Prussian field marshal of the same name was his great-granduncle. Thanks to family connections and education, had many ties in England. Became a lawyer in Berlin in 1934. Practiced law in Britain from 1935 to 1938 and planned to take over a law office in London. Undertook a peace mission to London in 1939. Owned the Kreisau estate in Silesia. In September 1939 joined the OKW Military Intelligence branch, where he served as a specialist in international law and law of war. Sought to obtain humane treatment of prisoners of war and compliance with international law. Began writing papers in 1939 arguing for a political change of direction in Germany. Systematically broadened his contacts in the Kreisau Circle to include church leaders and Social Democrats. Communicated with the Allies in 1943. Warned members of the Solf Circle that they were being spied on by the Gestapo and was arrested himself on January 19, 1944. The police investigations following July 20, 1944, uncovered his ties to the innermost circle of conspirators. Condemned to death by the People’s Court on Janu­ary 11, 1945, and executed in Plötzensee prison on January 23.

  Oberg, Carl-Albrecht (1897-1965)

  SS Ob
ergruppenführer. Senior SS and police commander in occupied France from 1942 to 1945. His appointment brought a sea change in relations between the military administration and the German police, who were made responsible for the security of the troops at their bases. Worked closely with French militiamen and collaborators. Took measures against Jews and the French resistance. Arrested for a short time on July 20, 1944, by army conspirators in Paris. Condemned to death in Germany in 1946, then extra­dited to France, where in 1954 he was once again sentenced to death. Sentence commuted to life imprisonment in 1958, but Oberg finally pardoned in 1965.

  Olbricht, Friedrich (1888-1944)

  Career officer. Division commander from 1938 to 1940. Lieutenant general in the infantry. Chief of the OKW General Army Office in Berlin from 1940 to 1944. After 1943 also chief of the reserve section within the OKW. With the groups led by Beck, Goerdeler, and Tresckow developed the Valkyrie plans for seizing control of government. In the fall of 1943 asked to have Stauffenberg appointed chief of staff in his office, but Stauffenberg was transferred in June 1944 to the staff of the commander in chief of the reserve army, Friedrich Fromm. It was Olbricht who gave the signal to launch Operation Valkyrie in Berlin after the assassination attempt of July 20. Executed by firing squad that night in the courtyard of army headquar­ters on Bendlerstrasse.

  Oster, Hans (1888-1945)

  Career officer, eventually brigadier general. Led the resistance movement within Military Intelligence. In 1935 joined the counterintelligence division of the Ministry of Defense as a reserve officer with the rank of lieutenant colonel. Played a leading role in the September conspiracy of 1938. In 1940 informed the Dutch military attaché about the impending German invasion of Holland. Became an active officer in 1941. Head of the central division of the OKW Military Intelligence Office. Dismissed on April 16, 1943, on charges of violating currency laws. Supposed to become president of the Reich military court after the coup. Arrested on July 21, 1944. Tried by a kangaroo court and hanged in the Flossenbürg concentration camp on April 9, 1945.

  Reichenau, Walter von (1884-1942)

  Head of the Bureau of Ministers (later Wehrmacht Office) in the Ministry of Defense and, as such, chief of staff and personal adviser to Blomberg. Saw National Socialism as a mass movement that he could exploit to advance the interests of the army and enhance the glory and prestige of Germany. Played a key role in integrating the Reichswehr into the Nazi state. After the inva­sion of Poland in 1939, became critical of Hitler’s plans for a hasty offensive in the West. Appointed field marshal in 1940 after the victory over France and finally commander in chief of Army Group South. Covered up the SS bloodbaths in the East. Claimed that German soldiers were imbued with a “relentless racial idea” that was more important than traditional concepts of military honor. Died of a heart attack after crash landing in an airplane.

  Reichwein, Adolf (1898-1944)

  Educator. Influenced by both socialism and the youth movement. Appointed professor of history and civics in Halle in 1930. Transferred by the Nazis to a rural school in April 1933. Later an educator in the State Museum for Ger­man Folklore in Berlin. Maintained contacts with the opposition and was a member of the Kreisau Circle after 1940. His office on Unter den Linden became a meeting place for the opposition. Despite the warnings of fellow conspirators, he and Julius Leber contacted a Communist resistance group that had been infiltrated by the Gestapo. Arrested in early July 1944. Con­demned to death by the People’s Court on October 20 and executed the same day.

  Rommel, Erwin (1891-1944)

  Career officer. At first sympathized with the Nazis. Master of tank warfare tactics and a legendary troop commander. From 1941 to 1943 commander of the Africa Corps. Appointed field marshal in 1942. Commander in chief of Army Group B in Italy and northern France in 1944. Sympathized with the conspiracy against Hitler but did not participate. Forced by Hitler to commit suicide on October 14, 1944, after his plans to “open” the western front became known. Would otherwise have been charged with treason before the People’s Court.

  Schacht, Hjalmar (1877-1970)

  Economist. Cofounder of the German Democratic Party. Played a key role in stabilizing the German mark in 1923. Joined the rightist Harzburg Front in 1931. Introduced Hitler to the circles of high finance. President of the Reichsbank from 1923 to 1930 and from 1933 to 1939. Minister of econom­ics from 1934 to 1937. Came into conflict with the Nazi leadership because he wanted to resist devaluation and inflation. Continued as minister without portfolio until 1944. Horrified by the Fritsch affair and Hitler’s evident intention to go to war, began to distance himself from the regime and placed himself at the disposal of the conspirators in September 1938. Considered by resistance to be somewhat unreliable. Arrested alter July 20, 1944, but noth­ing could be proved against him. Acquitted at the Nuremberg trials. Became a banker and financial adviser after the war.

  Schlabrendorff, Fabian von (1907-80)

  Lawyer and first lieutenant in the reserves. Served as Henning von Tresckow’s adjutant. In the military resistance, acted as the regular contact between Army Group Center and Beck, Goerdeler, Oster, and Olbricht. Arrested after July 20, 1944. Held in the Flossenbürg and Dachau concen­tration camps. His trial was delayed when Roland Freisler, president of the People’s Court, was killed. Eventually acquitted in March 1945, and released following the war. A judge of the Constitutional Court of the Federal Re­public of Germany from 1967 to 1975.

  Schulenburg, Count Fritz-Dietlof von der (1902-44)

  Lawyer specializing in administrative law. Joined the Nazi Party in 1932. Became deputy prefect of police in Berlin in 1937 and regional commissioner of Upper and Lower Silesia in 1939. Already considered, however, to lie “politically unreliable” and was expelled from the Nazi Party in 1940. First lieutenant in the reserves. Contacts with the Kreisau Circle. Held in high esteem by all, thanks to his dynamic personality. Perhaps the most valuable middleman in the resistance, maintaining close contacts with Stauffenberg as well as with Goerdeler, Leber, Popitz, and Moltke. Arrested after July 20, 1944. Executed in Plötzensee prison on August 10.

  Schwerin von Schwanenfeld, Count Ulrich Wilhelm (1902-44)

  As a student advocated the political renewal of Germany on Christian-social­ist foundations and opposed the Nazis from their early days. Convinced as early as 1935 that Germany could only be liberated from the Nazi regime by eliminating Hitler, by force if necessary. Maintained friendly relations with Yorck and Schulenburg and close contacts with Military Intelligence and the Kreisau Circle. One of the most influential intermediaries between military and civilian resistance circles. Conscripted into the Wehrmacht in 1939 and became Field Marshal Witzleben’s adjutant in Paris in 1941. Oster managed to have him sent back to Berlin in 1942. Although convinced after 1943-44 that a coup could no longer prevent the necessity of unconditional surrender, continued to advocate assassinating Hitler. Arrested in army headquar­ters on July 20. Sentenced to death on August 21 and executed in Plötzensee prison.

  Stauffenberg, Count Claus Schenk von (1907-44)

  Career officer. Member of the south German Catholic nobility but had Prus­sian ancestors as well. Part of the circle around the poet Stefan George. Joined a cavalry regiment in 1926. In 1938 became staff officer under Major General Erich Hoepner, who numbered among the conspirators led by Witzleben. After the French campaign, posted to the OKH organizational section. In early 1943 joined the Tenth Panzer Division covering Rommel’s withdrawal in Africa. Seriously wounded on April 7, 1943. Beginning in the fall of 1943 became the crucial figure in the resistance to Hitler. Named chief of staff in the General Army Office in October 1943 and then chief of staff to the commander of the reserve army. Slated to become secretary of state in the War Ministry after a successful coup. Resolved in the summer of 1944 to carry out the assassination attempt himself, because he had access to Hitler’s military briefing conferences. Tried to kill Hitler on July 20, 1944, in the Wolf’s Lair near Rastenburg, East Prussia.
Thinking he had suc­ceeded, flew to Berlin to help carry out the coup from army headquarters on Bendlerstrasse. Executed there on the night of July 20-21 along with other fellow conspirators.

  Stieff, Helmuth (1901-44)

  Career officer. Joined the army general staff in 1938. Became chief of the OKH organizational section in October 1942. Wrote many letters during the war, primarily to his wife. Although only a few have survived, they are among the most moving accounts of the period. Recruited into the active resistance by Henning von Tresckow. Although at first volunteered to kill Hitler, re­neged after much vacillation. Arrested on the night of July 20-21 at Führer headquarters and brutally tortured at subsequent interrogations. Withstood for several days all attempts to force him to name his fellow conspirators. Condemned to death by the People’s Court at the first trial of conspirators on August 8 and executed the same day in Plötzensee prison.

  Stülpnagel, Carl-Heinrich von (1886-1944)

  Career officer. A friend of Beck’s since the early 1930s. Typified a certain kind of cultivated officer, with an interest in science and literature. Participated in the plans for the September conspiracy of 1938. Quartermaster General on the army general staff from 1938 to 1940. Became a general in the infantry and then commander in chief of the Seventeenth Army in 1941, and served as military commander of France from 1942 to 1944. Together with Hofacker, provided support in Paris for the coup by the military resis­tance. Only in his command area were the conspirators’ plans successfully implemented on July 20, 1944. When the failure of the coup became appar­ent, attempted suicide but succeeded only in blinding and seriously wound­ing himself. Sentenced to death by the People’s Court on August 30 and executed the same day in Plötzensee prison.