60.Bloomberg Businessweek, Sept. 13, 2010; Duhigg and Bradsher, “How the U.S. Lost Out on iPhone Work”; Lüthje, Luo, and Zhang, Beyond the Iron Rice Bowl, 187; Ren, ed., China on Strike, 201–03; Ngai, Migrant Labor, 119, 130; Fallows, “Mr. China Comes to America,” 62. See also Factory City.
61.Unlike in China, the reduction of poverty in Vietnam has not been accompanied by a large increase in inequality. World Bank, [China] “Overview,” http://www.worldbank.org/en/country/china/overview#3; World Bank, “China” [Data], http://data.worldbank.org/country/china; and World Bank, [Vietnam] “Overview,” http://www.worldbank.org/en/country/vietnam/overview, all accessed Dec. 2, 2016. Chinese strike data derived from Chinese Labour Bulletin “Strike Map,” http://maps.clb.org.hk/strikes/en; U.S. data from United States Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, “Work stoppages involving 1,000 or more workers, 1947–2015,” http://www.bls.gov/news.release/wkstp.t01.htm (both accessed Aug. 16, 2016).
62.For overviews of strikes in China, see Ren, ed., China on Strike; Lee, Against the Law; James Griffiths, “China on Strike,” CNN.com, Mar. 29, 2016, http://www.cnn.com/2016/03/28/asia/china-strike-worker-protest-trade-union/; and China Labour Bulletin’s extraordinary interactive “Strike Map.” See also New York Daily News, Jan. 11, 2012; Ngai, Chan, and Selden, Dying for an iPhone; Duhigg and Barboza, “The iEconomy.”
63.The Vietnamese government is generally more supportive of worker strikes against foreign companies than the Chinese government and has less often used repressive power against them. Benedict J. Tria Kerkvliet, “Workers’ Protests in Contemporary Vietnam” and Anita Chan, “Strikes in Vietnam and China in Taiwanese-owned Factories: Diverging Industrial Relations Patterns,” in Chan, ed., Labour in Vietnam; “10,000 Strike at Vietnamese Shoe Factory, USA Today, Nov. 29, 2007, http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/news/world/2007-11-29-vietnam-shoe-strike_N.htm; “Workers Strike at Nike Contract Factory,” USA Today, Apr. 1, 2008, http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/money/economy/2008-04-01-1640969273_x.htm; “Shoe Workers Strike in the Thousands,” Thanh Nien Daily, http://www.thanhniennews.com/society/shoe-workers-strike-in-the-thousands-16949.html; “Vietnamese workers extract concessions in unprecedented strike,” DW, Feb. 4, 2015, http://www.dw.com/en/vietnamese-workers-extract-concessions-in-unprecedented-strike/a-18358432 (all accessed Aug. 8, 2016); International Trade Union Confederation, 2012 Annual Survey of Violations of Trade Union Rights—Vietnam; Kaxton Siu and Anita Chan, “Strike Wave in Vietnam, 2006–2011,” Journal of Contemporary Asia, 45:1 (2015), 71–91; New York Times, May 14, 2014; Wall Street Journal, May 16, 2014, June 19, 2014.
64.Both the shrinking rural population and the gender imbalance stem in part from China’s one-child policy. Ngai, Chan, and Selden, Dying for an iPhone; “Urban and rural population of China from 2004 to 2014,” Statista (accessed Aug. 16, 2016), http://www.statista.com/statistics/278566/urban-and-rural-population-of-china/; Ren, ed., China on Strike, 21–23; Ngai, Migrant Labor, 35, 114.
65.Bruce Einhorn and Tim Culpan, “Foxconn: How to Beat the High Cost of Happy Workers,” Bloomberg Businessweek, May 5, 2011, http://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2011-05-05/foxconn-how-to-beat-the-high-cost-of-happy-workers; Ngai, Migrant Labor, 114–15; Xue, “Local Strategies of Labor Control,” 96; Chen, China’s Workers Under Assault, 9.
66.Zhang, Inside China’s Automobile Factories, 57–59; Ngai, Migrant Labor, 117–18; Ngai, Chan, and Selden, Dying for an iPhone.
67.For films dealing with Chinese factories and migrant workers, see Elena Pollacchi, “Wang Bing’s Cinema: Shared Spaces of Labor,” WorkingUSA 17 (Mar. 2014); Xiaodan Zhang, “A Path to Modernization: A Review of Documentaries on Migration and Migrant Labor in China,” International Labor and Working-Class History 77 (Spring 2010).
68.For the factory as a sales tool, see Gillian Darley, Factory (London: Reaktion Books, 2003), 157–89. In China, EUPA seems something of an exception, allowing filmmakers and photographers to document its factory. For examples of tightly controlled tours, see James Fallows, “Mr. China Comes to America,” and Dawn Chmielewski, “Where AppleProducts Are Born: A Rare Glimpse Inside Foxconn’s Factory Gates,” Apr. 6, 2015, http://www.recode.net/2015/4/6/11561130/where-apple-products-are-born-a-rare-glimpse-inside-foxconns-factory.
69.Bloomberg Businessweek, Sept. 13, 2010; Xing Rung, New China Architecture (Singapore: Periplus Editions, 2006); Layla Dawson, China’s New Dawn: An Architectural Transformation (Munich: Prestel Verlag, 2005).
70.Neil Gough, “China’s Fading Factories,” New York Times, Jan. 20, 2016; Feng, “Skyscrapers’ Rise in China Marks Fall of Immigrant Enclaves”; Mark Magnier, “China’s Manufacturing Strategy,” Wall Street Journal, June 8, 2016.
71.For example, compare two collections of images by the pioneer American photographer Lewis W. Hine: Hine, Men at Work: Photographic Studies of Modern Men and Machines ([1932] New York: Dover, 1977), and Jonathan L. Doherty, ed., Women at Work: 153 Photographs by Lewis W. Hine (New York: Dover, 1981). Of course, gender patterns have varied over time and place, with more women working in heavy industry in communist countries than capitalist ones and gender imbalances diminishing over time.
72.Countless examples can be seen by doing a Google search for images of Chinese factories.
73.For Burtynsky, see http://www.edwardburtynsky.com/site_contents/Photographs/China.html (accessed Dec. 2, 2016); for Gursky, see, for example, Marie Luise Syring, Andreas Gursky: Photographs from 1984 to the Present (New York: TeNeues, 2000).
Conclusion
1.Kenneth E. Hendrickson III, ed., The Encyclopedia of the Industrial Revolution in World History, vol. III, 3rd ed. (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2014), 568; R. S. Fitton, The Arkwrights: Spinners of Fortune ([1989] Matlock, UK: Derwent Valley Mills Educational Trust, 2012), 228–29; Timothy J. Minchin, Empty Mills: The Fight Against Imports and the Decline of the U.S. Textile Industry (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 2013), 31; Tamara K. Hareven and Randolph Lanenbach, Amoskeag: Life and Work in an American Factory City (New York: Pantheon Books, 1978), 10–11; Gray Fitzsimons, “Cambria Iron Company,” Historic American Engineering Record, National Park Service, Department of the Interior, Washington, D.C., 1989; William Serrin, Homestead: The Glory and Tragedy of an American Steel Town (New York: Random House, 1992).
2.Lindsay-Jean Hard, “The Rouge: Yesterday, Today & Tomorrow,” Urban and Regional Planning Economic Development Handbook, University of Michigan, Taubman College of Architecture and Urban Planning, Dec. 4, 2005, http://www.umich.edu/~econdev/riverrouge/; Perry Stern, “Best Selling Vehicles in America—September Edition,” Sept. 2, 2016, http://www.msn.com/en-us/autos/autos-passenger/best-selling-vehicles-in-america-%E2%80%94-september-edition/ss-AAiquE5#image=21.
3.Laurence Gross, The Course of Industrial Decline: The Boott Cotton Mills of Lowell, Mass., 1835–1955 (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1993), 44–45, 102–03, 229, 238–40.
4.Jefferson Cowie and Joseph Heathcott, “The Meanings of Deindustrialization,” in Cowie and Heathcott, eds., Beyond the Ruins: The Meanings of Deindustrialization (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2003), 4. There is a large literature on deindustrialization. In addition to this volume, see the cluster of articles on “Crumbling Cultures: Deindustrialization, Class, and Memory,” ed. Tim Strangleman, James Rhodes, and Sherry Linkon, in International Labor and Working-Class History 84 (Oct. 2013).
5.Paul Wiseman, “Why Robots, Not Trade, Are Behind So Many Factory Job Losses,” AP: The Big Story, Nov. 2, 2016, http://bigstory.ap.org/article/265cd8fb02fb44a69cf0eaa2063e11d9/mexico-taking-us-factory-jobs-blame-robots-instead; Mandy Zuo, “Rise of the Robots: 60,000 Workers Culled from Just One Factory as China’s Struggling Electronics Hub Turns to Artificial Intelligence,” South China Morning Post, May 22, 2016, http://www.scmp.com/news/china/economy/article/1949918/rise-robots-60000-workers-culled-just-one-factory-chinas. See also Wall Street Journal, Aug. 17, 2016.
6.Rich Appelbaum and Nelson Lichtenstein, “An Ac
cident in History,” New Labor Forum 23 (3) (2014), 58–65; Ellen Barry, “Rural Reality Meets Bangalore Dreams,” New York Times, Sept. 25, 2016.
7.Kevin Hamlin, Ilya Gridneff, and William Davison, “Ethiopia Becomes China’s China in Global Search for Cheap Labor,” Bloomberg, July 22, 2014, https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2014-07-22/ethiopia-becomes-china-s-china-in-search-for-cheap-labor; Lily Kuo, “Ivanka Trump’s Shoe Collection May Be Moving from ‘Made in China’ to ‘Made in Ethiopia,’” Quartz Africa, Oct. 8, 2016, http://qz.com/803626/ivanka-trumps-shoe-collection-may-be-moving-from-made-in-china-to-made-in-ethiopia/; Chris Summers, “Inside a Trump Chinese Shoe Factory,” Daily Mail.com, Oct. 6, 2016, http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-3824617/Trump-factory-jobs-sent-China-never-come-back.html.
8.For variations of the factory under different social systems, see Michael Burawoy, The Politics of Production: Factory Regimes Under Capitalism and Socialism (London: Verso, 1985), and Dipesh Chakrabarty, Rethinking Working Class History: Bengal, 1890–1940 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1989).
9.The documentary film After the Factory (Topografie Association, 2012), comparing efforts in Lodz, Poland, and Detroit at postindustrial reinvention, suggests the possibilities and limitations of such strategies.
10.4-traders: “Hon Hai Precision Industry Co., Ltd.,” http://www.4-traders.com/HON-HAI-PRECISION-INDUSTR-6492357/company/, and “Pegatron Corporation,” http://www.4-traders.com/PEGATRON-CORPORATION-6500975/company/, both accessed July 5, 2016, and “Yue Yuen Industrial (Holdings) Ltd.,” accessed Jan. 1, 2017; “Fast Facts About Vanguard” (accessed Jan. 3, 2017), https://about.vanguard.com/who-we-are/fast-facts/; Calvert Social Investment Fund, “Annual Report,” Sept. 30, 2016, 4, 7.
Illustration Credits
2Derby Silk Mill: Look and Learn.
78 Girl at Amoskeag: Library of Congress, Prints and Photographs Division, National Child Labor Committee Collection LC-DIG-nclc-01782.
125Magneto assembly line: From the Collections of The Henry Ford.
136Aerial view of Highland Park: From the Collections of The Henry Ford.
152River Rouge: Photograph © 1927 Museum of Fine Arts, Boston.
156Kahn, Kahlo, and Rivera: Detroit Institute of Arts Research Library & Archives.
170Margaret Bourke-White’s Stalingrad Tractor Factory: © Estate of Margaret Bourke-White/Licensed by VAGA, New York, NY.
1891930 Soviet magazine cover: New York Public Library.
208Workers’ cafeteria at Gorky: The Austin Company.
230B-24 Liberator assembly line: From the Collections of The Henry Ford.
239Lawrence addressing Westinghouse strikers: UE News Photograph Collection, 1933–1998, University of Pittsburgh.
253Lenin Steelworks: Henryk Makarewicz / Imago Mundi Foundation collection.
255Nova Huta: Henryk Makarewicz / Imago Mundi Foundation collection.
289Reebok factory in Vietnam: Peter Charlesworth/Getty Images.
Index
Page numbers listed correspond to the print edition of this book. You can use your device’s search function to locate particular terms in the text.
Page numbers in italic refer to illustrations.
absentee ownership, 56
absenteeism, 129, 225
AC Spark Plug, 144
ACW (Amalgamated Clothing Workers), 178–79
Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, 318
Adidas, 292–95, 307, 309
Adler, Philip, 169–70
AFL (American Federation of Labor), 113–14, 129
African Americans, 5, 59, 104, 110, 114, 116, 157, 357n, 380n
Agnelli, Giovanni, 136
aircraft industry, 229–32, 230, 238, 328n, 381n
Akron, Ohio, 128, 161, 163–64, 235–36
Alabama, 110, 235–36
Alexander Smith carpets, 239
All Saints’ Church (Derby, England), 1
Allegheny County, Pennsylvania, 110
Allentown, Pennsylvania, 240
All-Russia Metal Workers’ Union, 177
Almy and Brown, 45–46
Alpert, Max, 212, 214
Althrop, Lord, 32
Amalgamated Association of Iron and Steel Workers, 99–103, 355n
Amalgamated Clothing Workers (ACW), 178–79
American Communist Party, 114, 145
American Federation of Labor (AFL), 113–14, 129
American Landscape (Sheeler), 152–53
American Legion, 238
American Machinist (trade journal), 144
American Notes (Dickens), 64
American Pastoral (Roth), xvi
American Steel Foundries Company, 228
American Woolen Company, 76
“Americanism and Fordism” (Gramsci), 132
Amertorp Corporation, 228–29
Amoskeag Manufacturing Company, 57–58, 76–77, 78, 79, 150, 153, 314, 345n, 349n
Amtorg, 187–90, 194, 221
Anshan Iron and Steel Company, 277–78
antitrust suits, 113, 357n
Apollinaire, Guillaume, 86–87
Apollo Iron and Steel Company, 104
Appelbaum, Richard P., 290, 300
Apple, xii, 270–71, 273, 289–90, 293–97, 308–9, 322
Appleton, Nathan, 49
Appleton Company, 53
Appliance Park (General Electric), 238, 243–44
Arab Spring, 269
ArcelorMittal, 265
architecture and design
boardinghouse model, 54, 55
building length and width, 51–52
in China, 310–11
collapse of factories, 76–77, 349n
early British textile mills, 14–17
in Eastern Europe, 251, 253–56
elevators, 16–17
fires and fire danger, 15, 17, 52, 76–77, 349n
iron, 15, 52
Kahn and modern industrial design, 133–37, 139–40
lighting, 15, 20–21, 52, 139–40
New England textile mills, 48–49
reinforced concrete, 133, 135, 139
roof monitors, 139–40
sawtooth roofs, 15, 134, 140
single-story factories, 139
steam power, 16
steel frames, 139
Arens, Egmont, 172, 369n
Arkwright, Richard, 7–9, 8, 13–15, 17, 35–36, 45, 314, 334n
armor and armaments industry, 93–95, 120, 123, 176, 223–24, 228–33, 369n
art and artists, xii
depictions of Chinese industry, 273, 288, 303, 310, 312
depictions of Cold War mass production, 233, 244, 256–57
depictions of Eiffel Tower, 86–87
depictions of Fordism and industry, 77, 102–3, 119, 136, 145, 148–61, 157, 366n
depictions of iron and steel industry, 96, 97
depictions of Soviet industry, 170, 170, 210–18
Arthur G. McKee & Company, 202
Asheboro, North Carolina, 240
assembly line, 118, 124–27, 125, 144–45, 182, 196–98
Atlanta, Georgia, 85–86, 164
Austin, James Trecothick, 84
Austin Company, 191–92, 221, 373n
automation and mechanization
cotton industry, 7, 9
downsizing and, 242–43, 317–18
Fordism, 118, 124–27, 125, 144–45, 182, 242–43, 297
textile industry, 50
automotive industry. See also names of specific automotive manufacturers
artistic depictions of, 155–58
in China, 298
conversion for military production, 229–31
in Germany, 265–67, 388n
increase in number of giant factories, 127–28, 143–44
innovative factory architecture, 133, 136–37, 140
number of workers, 143–44, 245
product standardization, 141–42
protests and strikes, 161–66
in Soviet Union, 171,
190–93, 199–200, 205
trade unions and labor organization, 129, 162–68
Autostadt (Volkswagen), 267
Avtograd, Soviet Union, 248, 385n
AvtoVaz, 248
Awful Battle at Homestead, Pa, An (illustration), 102
B Building (Ford), 139, 142
B-24 bombers, 229, 230, 231
B-26 bombers, 232
Babbage, Charles, 10–12
backward integration, 90, 105, 138, 353n, 388n
Bage, Charles, 15
Baines, Edward, 5–6, 11–12
Bangladesh, 274, 318
Bank Misr, 268
BASF, 267
Bell, Daniel, 244–45
Bellamy, Edward, 72
Belper, England, 8, 17, 45
Belt, The (play), 172
Bendix, William, 244
Benjamin, Walter, 85
Bennett, Harry, 132, 142, 168
Bentham, Jeremy, 17
Bentham, Samuel, 17
Bentinck, William, 37
Berger, Victor, 77
Berkman, Alexander, 102
Berlin, Germany, 250, 256
Berman, Marshall, xvi
Bessemer, Henry, 92
Bethlehem Iron Company, 95
Bethlehem Steel Company, 107, 113, 116, 232, 245, 356n, 385n
BF Goodrich, 292
Biddeford, Maine, 55
Big Money, The (Dos Passos), 117, 147
Biggs, Lindy, 144
Birmingham, Alabama, 110
Blake, William, 28, 96
Bloomberg Businessweek, 310
Bloomfield, New Jersey, 238
Bloomington, Indiana, 237, 382n
Boeing, 232
Bologna, Italy, 329n
Bolton, England, 21, 29, 62
Bombay, India, 17
Bomber City proposal, 231
Boott, Kirk, 345n
Boott Mills, 53, 74–75, 104, 315–16
boredom, 30, 60, 64, 165, 258–59
Boston, Massachusetts, 47–48, 54, 84, 115
Boston Associates companies, 55–56, 65, 77, 79, 99
Boston Manufacturing Company, 47–51, 53–54, 341n, 343n
Boswell, James, 3–4
Behemoth Page 46