The Inner Level

by Richard Wilkinson

  219. Fehr, E., Bernhard, H. and Rockenbach, B., ‘Egalitarianism in young children’, Nature 2008; 454 (7208): 1079.

  220. Gintis, H., Van Schaik, C., Boehm, C., et al., ‘Zoon politikon: the evolutionary origins of human political systems’, Current Anthropology 2015; 56 (3): 340–41.

  221. Erdal, D., Whiten, A., Boehm, C. and Knauft, B., On Human Egalitarianism: An Evolutionary Product of Machiavellian Status Escalation? Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1994.

  222. Price, T. D. and Feinman, G. M., Foundations of Social Inequality. New York: Springer Science & Business Media, 1995.

  223. Price T. D. and Bar-Yosef, O., ‘Traces of inequality at the origins of agriculture in the ancient Near East’, in T. D. Price and G. M. Feinman (eds.), Pathways to Power. New York: Springer, 2010, pp. 147–68.

  224. Bowles, S., Smith, E. A. and Borgerhoff Mulder, M., ‘The emergence and persistence of inequality in premodern societies: introduction to the special section’, Current Anthropology 2010; 51 (1): 7–17.

  225. Hastorf, C. A., Agriculture and the Onset of Political Inequality before the Inka. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993.

  226. Brosnan, S. F. and de Waal, F. B., ‘Evolution of responses to (un) fairness’, Science 2014; 346 (6207): 1251776.

  227. Naito, T. and Washizu, N., ‘Note on cultural universals and variations of gratitude from an East Asian point of view’, International Journal of Behavioral Science 2015; 10 (2): 1–8.

  228. McCullough, M. E., Kimeldorf, M. B. and Cohen, A. D., ‘An adaptation for altruism: the social causes, social effects, and social evolution of gratitude’, Current Directions in Psychological Science 2008; 17 (4): 281–5.

  229. Mauss, M. and Halls, W. D., The Gift: Forms and Functions of Exchange in Archaic Societies. New York: W. W. Norton & Co., 1954.

  230. Oosterbeek, H., Sloof, R. and Van De Kuilen, G., ‘Cultural differences in ultimatum game experiments: evidence from a meta-analysis’, Experimental Economics 2004; 7 (2): 171–88.

  231. Frank, R. H., Passions Within Reason: The Strategic Role of the Emotions. New York: W. W. Norton & Co., 1988.

  232. Fehr, E. and Gachter, S., ‘Altruistic punishment in humans’, Nature 2002; 415 (6868): 137–40.

  233. Elgar, F. J., Craig, W., Boyce, W., Morgan, A. and Vella-Zarb, R., ‘Income inequality and school bullying: multilevel study of adolescents in 37 countries’, Journal of Adolescent Health 2009; 45 (4): 351–9.

  234. DeBruine, L. M., Jones, B. C., Crawford, J. R., Welling, L. L. and Little, A. C., ‘The health of a nation predicts their mate preferences: cross-cultural variation in women’s preferences for masculinized male faces’, Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B: Biological Sciences 2010; 277 (1692): 2405–10.

  235. Brooks, R., Scott, I. M., Maklakov, A. A., et al., ‘National income inequality predicts women’s preferences for masculinized faces better than health does’, Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B: Biological Sciences 2011; 278 (1707): 810–12.

  236. Brooks, R., Scott, I. M., Maklakov, A. A., et al., ‘National income inequality predicts women’s preferences for masculinized faces better than health does’, Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B: Biological Sciences 2011; 278 (1707): 810–12; discussion 13–14.

  237. Kim, D. A., Benjamin, E. J., Fowler, J. H. and Christakis, N. A., ‘Social connectedness is associated with fibrinogen level in a human social network’, Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B: Biological Sciences 2016; 283: 20160958.

  238. Wilkinson, G. S., ‘Reciprocal altruism in bats and other mammals’, Ethology and Sociobiology 1988; 9 (2–4): 85–100.

  239. Hauser, M. D., Chen, M. K., Chen, F. and Chuang, E., ‘Give unto others: genetically unrelated cotton-top tamarin monkeys preferentially give food to those who altruistically give food back’, Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B: Biological Sciences 2003; 270 (1531): 2363–70.

  240. Kolominsky, Y., Igumnov, S. and Drozdovitch, V., ‘The psychological development of children from Belarus exposed in the prenatal period to radiation from the Chernobyl atomic power plant’, Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 1999; 40 (2): 299–305.

  241. Provençal, N. and Binder, E. B., ‘The effects of early life stress on the epigenome: from the womb to adulthood and even before’, Experimental Neurology 2015; 268: 10–20.

  242. Anacker, C., O’Donnell, K. J. and Meaney, M. J., ‘Early life adversity and the epigenetic programming of hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal function’, Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience 2014; 16 (3): 321.

  243. Lutz, P.-E., Almeida, D. M., Fiori, L. and Turecki, G., ‘Childhood maltreatment and stress-related psychopathology: the epigenetic memory hypothesis’, Current Pharmaceutical Design 2015; 21 (11): 1413–17.

  244. Golldack, D., Lüking, I. and Yang, O., ‘Plant tolerance to drought and salinity: stress regulating transcription factors and their functional significance in the cellular transcriptional network’, Plant Cell Reports 2011; 30 (8): 1383–91.

  245. Slavich, G. M. and Cole, S. W., ‘The emerging field of human social genomics’, Clinical Psychological Science 2013; 1 (3): 331–48.

  246. Sapolsky, R. M., ‘Stress, stress-related disease, and emotional regulation’, in J. J. Gross (ed.), Handbook of Emotion Regulation. New York: Guilford Press, 2007, pp. 606–15.

  247. Eckenrode, J., Smith, E. G., McCarthy, M. E. and Dineen, M., ‘Income inequality and child maltreatment in the United States’, Pediatrics 2014; 133 (3): 454–61.

  248. Yehuda, R., Daskalakis, N. P., Bierer, L. M., et al., ‘Holocaust exposure induced intergenerational effects on FKBP5 methylation’, Biological Psychiatry 2016; 80 (5): 372–80.

  249. McGuinness, D., McGlynn, L. M., Johnson, P. C., et al., ‘Socio-economic status is associated with epigenetic differences in the pSoBid cohort’, International Journal of Epidemiology 2012; 41 (1): 151–60.

  250. Tung, J., Barreiro, L. B., Johnson, Z. P., et al., ‘Social environment is associated with gene regulatory variation in the rhesus macaque immune system’, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA 2012; 109 (17): 6490–95.

  251. Sapolsky, R. M., Romero, L. M. and Munck, A. U., ‘How do glucocorticoids influence stress responses? Integrating permissive, suppressive, stimulatory, and preparative actions’, Endocrine Reviews 2000; 21 (1): 55–89.

  252. Sen, A., ‘Poor, relatively speaking’, Oxford Economic Papers 1983: 153–69.

  253. Walker, R., Kyomuhendo, G. B., Chase, E., et al., ‘Poverty in global perspective: is shame a common denominator?’ Journal of Social Policy 2013; 42 (2): 215–33.

  254. Chance, M. R. A., ‘Attention structure as the basis of primate rank orders’, Man 1967; 2 (4): 503–18.

  255. Pannozzo, P. L., Phillips, K. A., Haas, M. E. and Mintz, E. M., ‘Social monitoring reflects dominance relationships in a small captive group of brown capuchin monkeys (Cebus apella)’, Ethology 2007; 113 (9): 881–8.

  256. Kalma, A., ‘Hierarchisation and dominance assessment at first glance’, European Journal of Social Psychology 1991; 21 (2): 165–81.

  257. Brown, P. H., Bulte, E. and Zhang, X., ‘Positional spending and status seeking in rural China’, Journal of Development Economics 2011; 96 (1): 139–49.

  258. Huberman, B. A., Loch, C. H. and Önçüler, A., ‘Status as a valued resource’, Social Psychology Quarterly 2004; 67 (1): 103–14.

  259. Frey, B. S., ‘Knight fever – towards an economics of awards’, CESifo Working Paper No. 1468, IEW Working Paper No. 239, May 2005, https://ssrn.com/abstract=717302.

  260. Runciman, W. G., Relative Deprivation and Social Justice: A Study of Attitudes to Social Inequality in 20th Century England. Berkeley, Calif.: University of California Press, 1966.

  261. Sapolsky, R. M., A Primate’s Memoir: A Neuroscientist’s Unconventional Life Among The Baboons. New York: Simon and Schuster, 2007.

  262. Gilligan, J., Preventing Violence. New York: Thames and Hudson, 2001.

  263. Dawes, C. T.,
Fowler, J. H., Johnson, T., McElreath, R. and Smirnov, O., ‘Egalitarian motives in humans’, Nature 2007; 446 (7137): 794–6.

  264. Keyes, C. L. M. and Waterman, M. B., ‘Dimensions of well-being and mental health in adulthood’, in M. H. Bornstein, L. Davidson, C. L. M. Keyes and K. A. Moore (eds.), Crosscurrents in Contemporary Psychology. Well-Being: Positive Development Across the Life Course. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 2003, pp. 477–97.

  265. Russ, T. C., Stamatakis, E., Hamer, M., et al., ‘Association between psychological distress and mortality: individual participant pooled analysis of 10 prospective cohort studies’, British Medical Journal 2012; 345: e4933.

  266. Johnson, B., The Third Margaret Thatcher Lecture, Centre for Policy Studies, 2013, http://www.cps.org.uk/events/q/date/2013/11/27/the-2013-margaret-thatcher-lecture-boris-johnson/.

  267. Stiglitz, J. E., The Price of Inequality: How Today’s Divided Society Endangers Our Future. New York: W. W. Norton & Co., 2012.

  268. Krugman, P., ‘Why inequality matters’, New York Times 15 December 2013.

  269. Cingano, F., ‘Trends in income inequality and its impact on economic growth’, OECD Social, Employment and Migration Working Papers, No. 163, OECD Publishing, 2014, http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/5jxrjncwxv6j-en.

  270. Ostry, M. J. D., Berg, M. A. and Tsangarides, M. C. G., Redistribution, Inequality, and Growth. Washington, DC: International Monetary Fund, 2014.

  271. Smith, G. D., ‘Epidemiology, epigenetics and the “Gloomy Prospect”: embracing randomness in population health research and practice’, International Journal of Epidemiology 2011; 40 (3): 537–62.

  272. Plato, The Republic. London: Penguin Classics, 3rd edition, 2007.

  273. Holtzman, N. A., ‘Genetics and social class’, Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health 2002; 56 (7): 529–35.

  274. Flynn, J. R., Are We Getting Smarter? Rising IQ in the Twenty-First Century. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2012.

  275. Dhuey, E. and Lipscomb, S., ‘What makes a leader? Relative age and high school leadership’, Economics of Education Review 2008; 27 (2): 173–83.

  276. Sprietsma, M., ‘Effect of relative age in the first grade of primary school on long-term scholastic results: international comparative evidence using PISA 2003’, Education Economics 2010; 18 (1): 1–32.

  277. Baker, J. and Logan, A. J., ‘Developmental contexts and sporting success: birth date and birthplace effects in national hockey league draftees 2000–2005’, British Journal of Sports Medicine 2007; 41 (8): 515–17.

  278. Cobley, S., Baker, J., Wattie, N. and McKenna, J., ‘Annual age-grouping and athlete development’, Sports Medicine 2009; 39 (3): 235–56.

  279. Helsen, W. F., Van Winckel, J. and Williams, A. M., ‘The relative age effect in youth soccer across Europe’, Journal of Sports Sciences 2005; 23 (6): 629–36.

  280. Vestberg, T., Gustafson, R., Maurex, L., Ingvar, M. and Petrovic, P., ‘Executive functions predict the success of top-soccer players’, PLoS One 2012; 7 (4): e34731.

  281. Plomin, R., Asbury, K. and Dunn, J., ‘Why are children in the same family so different? Nonshared environment a decade later’, The Canadian Journal of Psychiatry 2001; 46 (3): 225–33.

  282. Woollett, K. and Maguire, E. A., ‘Acquiring “the Knowledge” of London’s layout drives structural brain changes’, Current Biology 2011; 21 (24–2): 2109–14.

  283. Gaser, C. and Schlaug, G., ‘Gray matter differences between musicians and nonmusicians’, Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 2003; 999: 514–17.

  284. Draganski, B., Gaser, C., Kempermann, G., et al., ‘Temporal and spatial dynamics of brain structure changes during extensive learning’, Journal of Neuroscience 2006; 26 (23): 6314–17.

  285. Mora, F., Segovia, G. and del Arco, A., ‘Aging, plasticity and environmental enrichment: structural changes and neurotransmitter dynamics in several areas of the brain’, Brain Research Reviews 2007; 55 (1): 78–88.

  286. Boyke, J., Driemeyer, J., Gaser, C., Büchel, C. and May, A., ‘Training-induced brain structure changes in the elderly’, Journal of Neuroscience 2008; 28 (28): 7031–5.

  287. Mahncke, H. W., Bronstone, A. and Merzenich, M. M., ‘Brain plasticity and functional losses in the aged: scientific bases for a novel intervention’, Progress in Brain Research 2006; 157: 81–109.

  288. Hanson, J. L., Hair, N., Shen, D. G., et al., ‘Family poverty affects the rate of human infant brain growth’, PLoS One 2013; 8 (12): e80954.

  289. Dickerson, A. and Popli, G. K., ‘Persistent poverty and children’s cognitive development: evidence from the UK Millennium Cohort Study’, Journal of the Royal Statistical Society: Series A (Statistics in Society) 2016; 179 (2): 535–58.

  290. Brooks-Gunn, J. and Duncan, G. J., ‘The effects of poverty on children’, The Future of Children 1997; 7 (2): 55–71.

  291. Korenman, S., Miller, J. E. and Sjaastad, J. E., ‘Long-term poverty and child development in the United States: Results from the NLSY’, Children and Youth Services Review 1995; 17 (1–2): 127–55.

  292. Kiernan, K. E. and Mensah, F. K., ‘Poverty, maternal depression, family status and children’s cognitive and behavioural development in early childhood: a longitudinal study’, Journal of Social Policy 2009; 38 (4): 569–88.

  293. Blair, C., Granger, D. A., Willoughby, M., et al., ‘Salivary cortisol mediates effects of poverty and parenting on executive functions in early childhood’, Child Development 2011; 82 (6): 1970–84.

  294. Guo, G. and Harris, K. M., ‘The mechanisms mediating the effects of poverty on children’s intellectual development’, Demography 2000; 37 (4): 431–47.

  295. Ayoub, C., O’Connor, E., Rappolt-Schlictmann, G., et al., ‘Cognitive skill performance among young children living in poverty: risk, change, and the promotive effects of Early Head Start’, Early Childhood Research Quarterly 2009; 24 (3): 289–305.

  296. Hart, B. and Risley, T. R., Meaningful Differences in the Everyday Experience of Young American Children. Baltimore, Md: Paul H. Brookes Publishing, 1995.

  297. Heckman, J. J., ‘Creating a more equal and productive Britain’, Young Foundation Lecture, 2011, www.youngfoundation.org/files/images/Heckman_Lecture_19_May_2011.pdf.

  298. Crawford, C., Macmillan, L. and Vignoles, A., ‘When and why do initially high-achieving poor children fall behind?’ Oxford Review of Education 2017; 43 (1): 88–108.

  299. OECD, Equity and Quality in Education Supporting Disadvantaged Students and Schools. Paris: OECD Publishing, 2012, http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/9789264130852-en.

  300. Burgess, S. and Greaves, E., ‘Test scores, subjective assessment, and stereotyping of ethnic minorities’, Journal of Labor Economics 2013; 31 (3): 535–76.

  301. Ferguson, R. F., ‘Teachers’ perceptions and expectations and the Black–White test score gap’, Urban Education 2003; 38 (4): 460–507.

  302. Rosenthal, R. and Jacobson, L., ‘Pygmalion in the classroom’, The Urban Review 1968; 3 (1): 16–20.

  303. Hanna, R. N. and Linden, L. L., ‘Discrimination in grading’, American Economic Journal: Economic Policy 2012; 4 (4): 146–68.

  304. Reay, D., ‘The zombie stalking English schools: social class and educational inequality’, British Journal of Educational Studies 2006; 54 (3): 288–307.

  305. Blanden, J., ‘Essays on intergenerational mobility and its variation over time’ [PhD Thesis], University of London, 2005.

  306. Reay, D., Miseducation: Inequality, Education and the Working Classes. Bristol: Policy Press, 2017.

  307. Bradley, R. H. and Corwyn, R. F., ‘Socioeconomic status and child development’, Annual Review of Psychology 2002; 53: 371–99.

  308. Barnett, W. S., Jung, K., Yarosz, D. J., et al., ‘Educational effects of the Tools of the Mind curriculum: a randomized trial’, Early Childhood Research Quarterly 2008; 23 (3): 299–313.

  309. Barnett, W. S. and Masse, L. N., ‘Comparative benefit–cost analysis of the Abecedarian program and its policy implications’, Econ
omics of Education Review 2007; 26 (1): 113–25.

  310. Heckman, J. J., ‘Skill formation and the economics of investing in disadvantaged children’, Science 2006; 312 (5782): 1900–902.

  311. Heckman, J. J., ‘The economics, technology, and neuroscience of human capability formation’, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 2007; 104 (33): 13250–55.

  312. Magnuson, K. A., Ruhm, C. and Waldfogel, J., ‘Does prekindergarten improve school preparation and performance?’ Economics of Education Review 2007; 26 (1): 33–51.

  313. Magnuson, K. A., Ruhm, C. and Waldfogel, J., ‘The persistence of preschool effects: Do subsequent classroom experiences matter?’ Early Childhood Research Quarterly 2007; 22 (1): 18–38.

  314. Hoff, K. and Pandey, P., ‘Belief systems and durable inequalities: an experimental investigation of Indian caste’, Policy Research Working Paper. Washington, DC: World Bank, 2004.

  315. Stroessner, S. and Good, C., ‘Stereotype threat: an overview’, www.diversity.arizona.edu/sites/diversity/files/stereotype_threat_overview.pdf.

  316. Nguyen, H.-H. D. and Ryan, A. M., ‘Does stereotype threat affect test performance of minorities and women? A meta-analysis of experimental evidence’, Journal of Applied Psychology 2008; 93 (6); 1314–34.

  317. Croizet, J.-C. and Dutrévis, M., ‘Socioeconomic status and intelligence: why test scores do not equal merit’, Journal of Poverty 2004; 8 (3): 91–107.

  318. Steele, C. M. and Aronson, J., ‘Stereotype threat and the intellectual test performance of African-Americans’, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 1995; 69: 797–811.

  319. Davies, P. G., Spencer, S. J., Quinn, D. M. and Gerhardstein, R., ‘Consuming images: how television commercials that elicit stereotype threat can restrain women academically and professionally’, Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 2002; 28 (12): 1615–28.

  320. Hess, T. M., Auman, C., Colcombe, S. J. and Rahhal, T. A., ‘The impact of stereotype threat on age differences in memory performance’, The Journals of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences 2003; 58 (1): P3–P11.