Behave: The Biology of Humans at Our Best and Worst

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Behave: The Biology of Humans at Our Best and Worst Page 92

by Robert M. Sapolsky

arbitrary signals and, 391

  charitable acts and, 548–50

  childhood adversity and, 196

  D4 receptor, gene for (DRD4), 256, 258, 260, 261, 279

  7R variant, 256, 279–81

  empathy and, 534, 545, 546

  genes and, 255–58, 264, 279–81, 280

  L-DOPA and, 693

  DRD4 gene, 256, 258, 260, 261, 279

  7R variant of, 256, 279–81

  drone pilots, 645–46

  drought, 303

  drugs, 65, 76, 196

  neuropharmacology, 693–94

  Drummond, Edward, 586

  Dunbar, Robin, 429

  Dunbar’s number, 430

  Dweck, Carol, 595

  Dylan, Bob, 184

  Eakin, John, 554

  East Asia, 277–78

  Eckford, Elizabeth, 640

  E. coli, 343, 380

  economic games and game theory, 18, 55, 66, 77, 89, 93, 104, 112, 116, 255, 272, 292, 345, 393, 398, 497–500, 609, 610, 624

  Dictator Game, 497, 498

  hunger and, 92, 449

  language effects on, 92–93, 491

  Prisoner’s Dilemma (PD), 92, 116, 345–46, 372, 393, 557, 633, 634

  public good, 495–96

  third-party punishment, 497

  Tit for Tat, 346–53, 363, 634, 666

  Contrite, 350

  Forgiving, 350, 351

  Ultimatum Game, 38–39, 106, 486, 497, 498, 500, 610, 635

  educational attainment, 263

  egalitarian cultures, 291–96

  egalitarianism, 167, 180–81

  Eichmann, Adolf, 464, 475

  Eisenberger, Naomi, 165

  Eisenegger, Christoph, 106

  Eldredge, Niles, 374–75, 385

  Elias, Norbert, 617

  Ellsberg, Daniel, 652

  El Niños, 302

  Emanuel African Methodist Episcopal Church, 641

  Ember, Carol, 319, 321

  Emerson, Ralph Waldo, 520

  emotional contagion, 522

  in animals, 523–26, 569

  in children, 527–58

  brain and, 22–28

  cognition and, 54–58

  eyes and, 89, 97

  and frontal cortical changes in adolescence, 160

  reappraisal and, 60–61, 160, 453

  empathy, 3, 4, 15, 18, 46, 169, 454, 521–52, 617

  in adolescence, 167–69

  affective side of, 528–31, 552

  cognitive load and, 534–35, 546

  cognitive side of, 528, 531–35, 552

  compassionate acts and, 542–45, 551, 614

  effectiveness in, 545–46

  emotional contagion, 522

  in animals, 523–26, 569

  in children, 527–28

  group loyalty and, 395

  mimicry and, 102, 522–24

  mirror neurons and supposed role in, 540–41

  pain and, 86, 133, 169, 180, 395, 522, 523, 527, 532, 533, 540, 545–47, 550–52, 560, 568

  self-interest in, 547–50, 642

  stress and, 133

  Us/Them and, 532–35

  wealthy people and, 533–34

  in young children, 179–81

  endocrinology, 7

  basics of, 707–10

  see also hormones

  Enlightenment, 615, 617

  environmental degradation, 302

  envy, 15, 67

  epilepsy, 605–6, 610, 611

  epinephrine, 27, 126

  equality, 395

  Escherichia coli, 343, 380

  estrogen, 117, 118, 144, 158

  genes and, 260

  prenatal, 211–13

  ethology, 10, 81–84

  Evans, Robert, 294–95

  evolution, 7, 15, 21, 328–86

  adaptation in, 380–85

  basics of, 328–31

  behavior and, 331–32

  continuous and gradual, 374–80

  evidence for, 329–30

  exaptation in, 381, 569

  fossil record and, 329, 330, 375, 376

  founder populations and, 353–54, 633

  genes and, 328–29, 373–74

  genotype vs. phenotype in, 360–62

  group selection in, 332–33, 426

  human, 365–73

  individual selection in, 366–68

  kin selection in, 368–72, 499

  and reciprocal altruism and neo-group selectionism, 372–73

  as tournament vs. pair-bonded, 365–66

  individual selection in, 333–36, 366–68

  intersexual genetic conflict and, 359–60

  kin selection in, 336–42, 368–72, 499, 570

  cousins and, 339–40

  green-beard effect and, 341–42, 353, 390, 409, 633, 637

  and recognizing relatedness, 340–41, 570

  misconceptions about, 328–29

  multilevel selection in, 360–65

  natural selection in, 330–31

  neo-group selection in, 360, 363–65, 372–73

  observed in real time, 379–80

  and pair-bonding vs. tournament species, 354–58, 360, 365–66, 383

  parent-offspring conflict and, 358–59

  punctuated equilibrium in, 374–80, 384–85

  reciprocal altruism and, 342–54, 372–73

  optimal cooperation strategy and, 345–53

  starting cooperation and, 353–54

  selection for complexity and, 329

  selection for preadaptation and, 329

  sexual selection in, 330–31

  sociobiology and, 331–33, 374–76, 380–84

  spandrels and, 381–82, 382

  survival of the fittest and, 328–29

  tinkering and improvisation in, 381, 568–69

  evolutionary psychology, 331–32

  executions, 170–71, 472, 582

  firing squads, 471–72

  executive function, 48

  sustained stress and, 130–31

  see also cognition; frontal cortex

  executive stress syndrome, 436

  eyes, social impact of, 89, 97, 623

  Facebook, 164, 667

  faces, 85–89, 129, 275

  amygdala and, 85, 89, 388, 395, 408–9, 416, 418

  beauty in, and confusion with goodness, 88, 443

  disgust and, 411

  dominant, 432, 433

  eyes, social impact of, 89, 97, 623

  fear and, 85, 395, 411

  fusiform response to, 80, 85–86, 88, 114, 122n, 388, 402

  gender of, 88

  infants and, 391–92

  race of, 85–87, 89, 391–92, 398, 408–9, 418–19, 614, 628–29

  testosterone and, 102, 104

  voting and, 442–44

  FADS2 gene, 246

  Fail-Safe (Burdick and Wheeler), 349n–50n

  Fairbanks, Lynn, 337

  fairness and justice, 323–24, 449, 450

  children’s sense of, 181, 483–84

  see also morality and moral decisions

  Farah, Martha, 195

  fascism, 202, 308, 401

  fear:

  aggression and, 44

  amygdala and, 34, 36–40, 42, 44, 85, 87–90, 97, 129

  faces and, 85, 395, 411

  innate vs. learned, 36

  pheromones and, 90

  sustained stress and, 128–30

  Fehr, Ernst, 55, 106, 517

  Felt, W. Mark, 652

  Ferguson, R. Brian, 308, 309

  fetus
, 210–11

  conflict with mother, 358–59

  prenatal environment and, 7, 210–21

  hormones in, 211–19

  fight or flight response, 26, 125, 133–34, 149n

  finches, 379

  firing squads, 471–72

  Fischer, David Hackett, 288

  fish, tit for tat behavior in, 351–52

  Fiske, Richard, 654–55, 655, 660, 668, 670

  Fiske, Susan, 408, 411, 421, 522, 533, 628–29

  5HTT gene, 246, 251, 260, 261

  fission-fusion species, 51, 429–30

  flags, symbolic power of, 391, 554

  Floyd, Pretty Boy, 184

  Flynn effect, 617

  Forbes, Chad, 89

  forgiveness, 15, 18, 395, 638, 640–42

  truth and reconciliation commissions (TRC), 638–39, 642

  fossils, 329, 330, 375, 376

  founder populations, 353–54, 633

  foxes, domestication of Siberian silver, 377–78, 378

  Francis, Darlene, 220

  Frank, Laurence, 120

  Franklin, Rosalind, 714

  free will, 583n, 585, 586, 591, 598, 605, 607–9, 612–13

  brain damage and, 590–91, 597, 598, 601–2, 609

  and causation vs. compulsion, 593

  Libet experiment and, 594

  mitigated, 586–90, 592, 593, 595–98, 605

  homunculus concept of, 588–89, 595–97, 600, 602, 607, 608

  and starting a behavior vs. halting it, 594–95

  Freud, Sigmund, 188–90, 222

  Friedman, Thomas, 620

  frontal cortex, 18, 19, 30, 38, 42, 45–64, 88, 91–92, 100, 132–34, 143, 144, 557, 607, 614

  childhood adversity and, 195, 196

  cognition and, 47–50, 159

  damage to, 53, 590–91, 609

  and doing the harder thing when it’s the correct thing to do, 45, 47–48, 50, 51, 55, 56, 63, 64, 74, 75, 92, 130, 134, 513, 515, 614

  genes and, 173

  insular cortex (insula), 41–42, 46, 59, 69, 398–99, 454, 531, 560–61, 10

  limbic system and, 58–64

  maturation in adolescence, 154–60, 171–73, 589–90, 592–93

  subregions of, 46–47

  Us/Them dichotomies and, 416–17

  see also prefrontal cortex

  frontal lobotomies (aka leukotomies), 9

  Fry, Douglas, 313, 314, 322–23, 322

  fusiform face area, 80, 85–86, 88, 114, 122n, 388, 402

  GABA, 119, 692

  Gabrieli, John, 86

  Gaddafi, Muammar, 653

  Gage, Fred “Rusty,” 148

  Gage, Phineas, 51–53, 52

  Gallese, Vittorio, 535, 539, 540

  galvanic skin resistance (GSR), 453

  gambling, 73

  game theory, see economic games and game theory

  Gandhi, Mahatma, 652

  Gauthier, Isabel, 80

  Gazzaniga, Michael, 591

  Geertz, Clifford, 271

  gender:

  differences, see sex differences

  of a face, 88

  grammatical, 558n

  generosity, punishment for, 292n, 496

  genes, 7–8, 10, 21, 108, 173, 223–65, 614

  behavior and, 224, 233–49

  “Big Five” personality traits and, 236

  and difference between traits being inherited and having a high degree of heritability, 242–43

  and fragile nature of heritability estimates, 241–45

  gene/environment interactions and, 245–48

  indirect routes in, 237

  molecular genetics and, 249–50

  papers published on, 605

  suspicion of links in, 224

  twin and adoption studies and, 234–41

  violence, 224

  candidate, study of, 250

  chance and, 232–33

  chromosomes, 223

  and collectivist vs. individualistic populations, 277

  and distortions of genetics, 224

  DNA in, 108, 147, 223, 225–33, 261–62

  as blueprint for constructing proteins, 712–14

  mutations and polymorphisms and, 714–17

  noncoding, 226

  dopamine system and, 255–58, 264, 279–81, 280

  DRD4, 256, 258, 260, 261, 279

  7R variant, 256, 279–81

  environment and, 225–29, 245–48

  epigenetics, 220–21, 229–30

  papers published on, 605

  essentialism and, 224–25

  evolution and, 328–29, 373–74

  exons and introns, 230–31

  FADS2, 246

  “fishing expeditions” in study of, 261–63

  5HTT, 246, 251, 260, 261

  frontal cortex and, 173

  oxytocin and vasopressin and, 227, 258–59

  political orientation and, 455

  reductionist view and, 224

  RNA in, 225, 226, 230, 233, 713–14

  “selfish,” 333, 342, 361, 367

  serotonin and, 227, 246, 250–55, 264

  steroid hormones and, 259–61

  estrogen, 260

  testosterone, 227, 259–60

  transcription factor (TF) and, 226–29, 233

  transposable elements in, 231–32

  “warrior,” 77, 253–54

  Genghis Khan, 367

  genome, 223

  genomewide association studies (GWAS), 261–64

  genomics, 224

  Genovese, Kitty, 94

  Gettysburg, Battle of, 554, 644

  Giuliani, Rudy, 95, 395–96

  Gladwell, Malcolm, 152

  glia cells, 680

  global warming, 303

  Glowacki, Luke, 314

  glucocorticoids, 125–27, 129, 130, 132, 143, 144, 149n, 193, 275

  early-life stressors and, 194–96

  genes and, 260

  prenatal, 219–20

  rank and, 436–38, 438, 440

  glutamate, 139–41, 143, 692

  Gobodo-Madikizela, Pumla, 629–30

  Golden Balls, 345n

  Golden Rule, 494, 520

  Golgi, Camillo, 688

  Goodall, Jane, 269–71, 358n

  Gopnik, Adam, 79

  Gore, Al, 403

  gorillas, mountain, 335–36

  gossip, 324, 433, 503

  Gould, Elizabeth, 148

  Gould, Stephen Jay, 84, 362, 374–75, 380–85

  Goy, Robert, 212–15

  Graham v. Florida, 589

  Grant, Peter and Rosemary, 379

  graven images, 553

  Grayling, Anthony, 541

  Greely, Hank, 598n

  Green Bay Packers, 405

  green-beard effect, 341–42, 353, 390, 409, 633, 637

  Greene, Joshua, 58, 450, 488–90, 505–9, 511, 518–19, 533, 575, 586, 609

  Gross, James, 60

  Grossman, David, 644–47, 660

  guilt, 471–72, 502

  Guilt: The Bite of Conscience (Katchadourian), 502

  Gulag Archipelago, The (Solzhenitsyn), 465

  Gulf War, 632

  Guthrie, Woody, 184

  Habituation to reward, 67–70

  Habyarimana, Juvénal, 571

  Hadza, 317–19, 318, 498, 620

  Haidt, Jonathan, 400, 449, 450, 481, 483, 488, 494, 509, 562

  Haig, David, 359

  Haig, Douglas, 395

  haka ritual, 17n

  Haldane, J. B. S., 336

  Hamad, Ghazi, 575
<
br />   Hamilton, W.D. (Bill), 333, 341–42, 344, 348, 634

  Hamlin, Kiley, 484

  Hancock, Winfield Scott, 409n

  Harlow, Harry, 190–91, 205, 222

  Harmless People, The (Thomas), 319

  Harris, Judith Rich, 203–4

  Harris, Sam, 513n, 583n

  Hartley, L. P., 616

  Haslam, Alex, 467–68

  health:

  disease, 302, 423

  personality and, 439

  status and, 293–95, 439, 441–42

  Hebb, Donald, 138, 147, 248

  Henrich, Joseph, 496–97, 623

  Heraclitus, 624

  Heston, Charlton, 387

  Hickok, Gregory, 538–40

  hierarchy(ies), 425–44, 475–76, 478, 491

  leadership and, 425–26, 436, 442

  nature and variety of, 426–30

  pecking order, 427

  rank, in humans, 430–44

  body and, 435–39

  brain and, 434, 475

  detecting, 432–34

  internal standards and, 432

  leaders and, 442–44, 476

  membership in multiple hierarchies, 431

  specialization of, 431

  ranking systems, 425–30

  Us/Them categorization and, 421–22, 425

  Hines, Melissa, 216

  Hinkley, John, Jr., 587

  hippocampus, 38n, 42, 45, 60, 78, 141–44, 148–53, 436

  childhood adversity and, 195, 196

  neurons in, 704

  Hitler, Adolf, 1–2, 202, 664

  Hoa, Do, 658

  Hobbes, Thomas, 305, 309, 317, 321, 325, 616

  Ho Chi Minh, 415

  Hoffman, Abbie, 396n

  Hoffman, Julius, 396n

  Hoffman, Morris, 609

  Hofling hospital experiment, 464n

  Holland, John, 350

  Holt, Luther, 188

  homeostasis, 125, 126

  homunculus, in free will, 588–89, 595–97, 600, 602, 607, 608

  homosexuality, 236

  honor, 501

  cultures of, 207, 283, 284, 501

  American South, 207, 284–88, 501

  honor killings in, 288–91, 290

  hormones, 6–8, 11, 15, 21, 27, 99–136, 223

  ACTH (adrenocorticotropic hormone), 125, 708–9

  and aggression in females, 117–24, 135–36

  perimenstrual, 121–24

  CRH (corticotropin-releasing hormone), 125, 129, 132, 708–9

  endocrinology basics, 707–10

  estrogen, 117, 118, 144, 158

  genes and, 260

  prenatal, 211–13

  neurotransmitters and, 707–10

  oxytocin, see oxytocin and vasopressin

  in prenatal environment, 211–19

  progesterone, 117–19, 124, 158, 211, 708

  receptors of, 709–10

  stress and, 17, 36–37, 124–34, 708

  testosterone, see testosterone

  vasopressin, see oxytocin and vasopressin

 

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