Samurai and Ninja: The Real Story Behind the Japanese Warrior Myth That Shatters the Bushido Mystique

by Antony Cummins

  Military and Civilian Roles

  The first of these divides is a modern divide. By that I mean the shinobi themselves did not identify such a partition. It does not exist as a label in historical documentation. However analysis leads to a clear divide. Two terms have been picked to show this theoretical split, military and civilian. Samurai are not technically within the realm of military at all times, so to clarify the use of these two, consider the terms as:

  1. Military—to mean when samurai are actively on military campaign, a call to war has been given and orders for war have been issued and the army has taken form.

  2. Civilian—covers samurai who are not at war and are either at home or traveling on personal business or for pleasure in a time of peace.

  Shinobi information often takes the side of either of these above and while they are never fully divided, a theme can be identified in most cases. Both modes have a shared but broad goal, the defeat of the enemy through deceptive arts, but can be identified in the two following lists:

  Military:

  ♦ The establishment of spy networks

  ♦ The gathering of large scale information from multiple agents

  ♦ The personal profiling of key members of the enemy

  ♦ To secure influence

  ♦ Topographical information about enemy territory

  ♦ The search for converted spy candidates

  ♦ The planting of long-term agents

  ♦ The distribution of disinformation and propaganda

  ♦ To gather information from clandestine operations

  ♦ To take the role of captains of night attack squads

  ♦ To act as guides through enemy territory

  ♦ The infiltration of enemy castles and battle camps

  ♦ To commit arson

  ♦ The assassination of military targets (with no personal motive)

  ♦ Destruction of enemy supplies

  ♦ Signaling and secret messages

  ♦ To be used as incineration and explosive experts

  ♦ Ritual and divine “magic” to enhance performance in stealth or to hinder the enemy

  ♦ Defense against all of the above

  Civilian:

  ♦ The infiltration of domestic dwellings for personal reasons that are not theft

  ♦ For domestic use against people of their own province with the authorization of the lord

  ♦ To perform skills that allow the discovery of a personal enemy

  ♦ Collective shinobi skills that aid in the assassination of an enemy on a mission of personal revenge

  ♦ To gain an advantage in an upcoming combat

  ♦ For personal defense while at home

  ♦ For personal defense while traveling

  ♦ To defend against thieves

  ♦ To hide from an enemy after a personal kill has been made

  ♦ To hide if being pursued for other reasons

  While not always a rule, most civilian shinobi arts are found attached to samurai sword schools. Examples are Shinjin-Ryu, Mubyoshi-Ryu and Tenshin Katori-Ryu. It must be stated that it is without doubt that the military aspects of the shinobi arts far outnumber the civilian versions. However, there is enough of a divide to show that a theoretical separation exists. The result is that shinobi arts are primarily military arts; yet they can be transferred to civilian life. In addition to this, civilian shinobi arts can easily stray into banditry and thievery.

  Public and Hidden Shinobi

  A separation that was recorded in medieval Japan was that of shinobi who were hidden and shinobi that were presented to the public. A lord would hire the amount of shinobi he could afford and place them in one of two categories. They would either become:

  1. Public shinobi—shinobi hired in the open to defend the lord or his castle; or to go to war in a shinobi group

  2. Hidden shinobi—shinobi hired in secret who either stay in their home province or work under a hidden identity in the lord’s army; or in the army of the enemy

  The Japanese terms are Yo no shinobi and In no shinobi, terms which originate from the Chinese concept of yin-yang:

  1. Yo—public (In the light)

  2. In—hidden (In the dark)

  Yo no shinobi are shinobi who are “exposed to the light.” They are hired by a clan to fill the role of shinobi. They are then billeted in the castle, or local area, as a shinobi in full view of the public (and enemy spies). The purpose of having these shinobi in public view is twofold. First it displays a lord’s use of shinobi to his enemies, which gives the message that a lord is well-informed, that he is well-defended and that, should issues arise, there are personnel in place to deal with such matters. This is also a standard practice among clans. Secondly, public shinobi are used openly in teams during military campaigns as was discussed previously. Therefore others know their identity. Further to this, these shinobi in the public eye are vital contact points for enemy shinobi—a subject that will be discussed later. Interaction between shinobi, no matter which side they appear to be working for, did exist.

  The map above shows the position of the residence of the “public” shinobi no mono in Okayama Castle.

  The jacket used by “public” shinobi no mono in the Ikeda clan.

  “They wear a blue sleeveless haori jacket with a silver crest on the rear.

  Their helmet should be of the zunari shape, be lacquered in black with a hinomaru—gold circle. Other crests are not allowed.”

  The quote and image on the opposite page were recorded in Okayama and show the “uniform” that the public shinobi would wear in and around the castle during the Edo period.

  In no shinobi are those shinobi that are not displayed openly and are hidden. These could already be in position within the enemy ranks. According to Chikamatsu Shigenori, an early eighteenth century shinobi chronicler, they could be hidden among the castle’s own troops. Troops would be unaware that a certain number among them are actually hired for their shinobi skills, not their appointed jobs. Also, these shinobi could be agents still living in their own province, paid as a full retainer. All this is with the arrangements and transactions being clandestine. If these shinobi are needed for a mission of espionage, the “public” shinobi—who will be under the watchful eye of the enemy shinobi—appear to be doing nothing. Yet unknown to the enemy, the hidden shinobi are on the move. In essence, it is sleight of hand and misdirection with people.

  As illustrated above, an ideal situation for the deployment of shinobi is that the lord will support the use of shinobi and appoint one of his close retainers or trusted followers to the task of spymaster. The term “spymaster” is used here but it is not a translation, it is a modern term; normally these are considered to be shinobi leaders or shinobi commanders. The spymaster will hire “public” shinobi and from these he will elect a leader. Depending on how many shinobi a lord retains there could be various captains running multiple but probably independent teams of agents, with the lower end of the chain being filled with shinobi ashigaru, those of the foot soldier class. Parallel to this a hidden shinobi team will be in place, or at least hidden shinobi individuals. The same spymaster will hire and allot tasks to these hidden shinobi who undertake missions of espionage or will infiltrate the enemy in advance. The Bansenshukai shinobi manual of 1676 warns shinobi not to attempt to gain fame for their skills—something which apparently was an issue—as the more well-known an agent becomes due to his expert skills, the greater the chance of being detected by the enemy. Remembering, of course, that movement between lords and political alliances was fluid in the Warring States Period and that often in this period shinobi from the same family could be hired out across the country. This means that others may have known faces and detection was a real issue. However, later, writers such as Chikamatsu Shigenori through his master Kimura of Koka state that some lords of the Edo Period did not fully understand how to utilize the shinobi and that many lords did not fully understand the correct procedures for running shinobi teams
—there seems to be a running complaint about the mismanagement of shinobi and shinobi teams. This means that during the Warring States Period, hidden shinobi had the real issue of being detected by other shinobi who may recognize them, especially if they had family connections or if they had let it be known they were shinobi, and that in the Edo Period some lords were so disconnected from the reality of war that they were unaware of the methods and benefits of using shinobi.

  The Two Divisions of Military Shinobi

  The military function of the shinobi can be further broken down into two main areas:

  First section:

  Before a war has even erupted, it is the task of the shinobi captain and strategists to identify potential enemies. Therefore advance shinobi are sent to perform the following tasks, or adopt the following positions.

  1. To have lived in the enemy province for an extended period beforehand. This is so that when war erupts, and highways and communication routes are closed; they are already on the “correct side of the fence.” As rōnin, or samurai living in that area, they gain employment for the upcoming war. However, they will of course work as shinobi for their original lord.

  2. They have approached the enemy side, stating that they are shinobi and have asked to be employed. The enemy has employed them but keeps them under observation. This being so as to identify if they are mercenary shinobi, or if they have a hidden agenda. It must be remembered that shinobi were hired out across Japan. It was not uncommon to hire a stranger as a shinobi. However it was a dangerous gamble, because both shinobi and their adversaries had ways of discovering the true plans of the other.

  3. To have positioned themselves—probably in groups or working as individuals—within the enemy castle town or camp; spreading misinformation, rumors and accusations among the enemy. Discord within an enemy camp was a vital key in a military campaign, and the goal was to divide an army. For an army was made up of a coalition of clans. They sought to sow distrust between a lord and his best tacticians. Disinformation must not be underestimated; the aim was to achieve a summary execution of expert tacticians. This was by the use of rumors and fake letters; through the copying of handwriting and seals. Months if not years of planning can be invested in the discrediting of an experienced general. Like a key piece in chess, if he is “taken off the board” during the most important phases of the battle, an army may be defeated.

  4. To infiltrate allied forces. Tokugawa Ieyasu was known for his use of shinobi against his own forces. This was to understand the nature of the minds of his “allies.” Samurai warfare was a shifting political arena. Notions of loyalty at high levels are not adhered to when great amounts of power and gold are in play. Therefore, lords would have shinobi infiltrate their own army or allied forces; especially if an army was a coalition of the clans. This way he could identify if betrayal was in the air or not.

  Second section:

  Those shinobi that are not sent in advance will march with the army as highlighted previously. They are identifiable as shinobi and are billeted separately. They work outside of the camp routines and regulations. Their tasks include:

  1. Scouting ahead of the army—They must identify “choke points,” potential ambush sites, camp positions, topography, water sources and enemy troop movements. They must also investigate mountain tops, valleys and suspicious forests and woodlands.

  2. They must scout close to the enemy and obtain numbers of troops, banners, crests, and famous samurai in attendance.* They must also identify weapons stores, army routes, and support troops in the area.

  3. Defense and safety—The camp perimeter is guarded by regular samurai and foot soldiers. However, beyond the light of the watch fires, shinobi hide in the bushes and forests. They listen and smell for night attack squads or other shinobi.

  4. Attack squad captains—Shinobi allotted to the army will sleep during the day but then lead attack squads at nighttime. Their task is to identify the best way to attack the enemy. Once established they lead regular samurai on night raids.

  5. Communications systems—Shinobi tend to run communications networks. Examples are: horse relay systems, running messengers, messenger relay teams, light and fire signals—including fire rockets and smoke. Also flag signals were used as well as signals on the wind, i.e., coded messages sent through sounding flutes, drums and conch shells.

  6. Bodyguards—Part of a shinobi’s task is to protect the lord. Normally loyal and trusted retainers are close to the lord. The lord will have a personal group of older loyal samurai around him. Some of those samurai may be shinobi-trained. Those who are trusted will protect the lord’s perimeter when he travels. If he stays in lodgings, the shinobi will check the area and position, securing the safety of the environment. Their task is to identify and protect weak points in a lord’s defense, such as keeping watch below the flooring of houses. Housing is raised off the ground. If the lord is on the ground floor then a shinobi will be positioned below his bed chamber while he sleeps.

  7. Fire skills and gunnery—Shinobi are trained in the use of firearms and gunnery. While they are not the only ones, their tasks will include the manufacture of gunpowder weapons. This included landmines, hand grenades and rockets; poisonous-gas-filled projectiles, and “Greek fire” style devices.

  8. Infiltration into enemy camps and castles—A primary task for the shinobi is to gain entrance into enemy castles and camps. This was used during sieges to gain information, or to work in unison with a besieging force. The shionobi burns down castle keeps and buildings while the regular forces attack. This creates a two-pronged attack.

  This basic outline highlights tasks and positions that a shinobi would undertake during wartime. In a time of peace, shinobi still under government employment would have traveled the land, infiltrating the enemy. Their priority was constant data collection. Through spy networks they would feed information to the spy-master, or sometimes directly to the lord. This data would then be analyzed and cross-referenced. The material would then be fed back to the lord and his council so that correct decisions could be made.

  The Difference Between In-nin and Yo-nin

  The same ideograms used for In no shinobi and Yo no shinobi as described previously are also used in a different way. The individual skills and arts of the shinobi can be roughly divided into two further sections and this division is heavily referenced in the shinobi manual, Bansenshukai.

  1. In-nin—“Dark shinobi,” the arts of creeping in darkness or to be out of sight of the enemy. This can also be during the daytime, the main factor is that the enemy do not see the agent; this is classic shinobi infiltration.

  2. Yo-nin—“Light shinobi,” the arts of disguise and moving through the enemy in the open, having a false identity and being visually observable, but ignored or perceived as something that they are not.

  To avoid confusion between the two types of shinobi, the ideograms will always be defined as:

  ♦ In no shinobi 陰ノ忍 – hidden shinobi; to be hired in secret

  ♦ Yo no shinobi 陽ノ忍 – public shinobi; to be hired in the open

  ♦ In-nin 陰忍 – dark shinobi; infiltration through stealth

  ♦ Yo-nin 陽忍 – light shinobi; open infiltration and disguise

  Now that an understanding of the tasks and aims of the shinobi have been identified, a more detailed look into the arts of the shinobi will be explored. Up until this point, environment, identity and the skills of the samurai—and foot soldier—have been discussed. A broad view of the Japanese “knight” has become a solid character. The basic tasks of the shinobi have been highlighted. Now, let us take that image and examine it through specialized training. Let’s see the development of the shinobi appear.

  A Shinobi Curriculum

  Upon reading a shinobi scroll, looking at the various translations the Historical Ninjutsu Research Team have made public, readers are sometimes left with a hole in the overall sketch of the shinobi. There seems to be no fixed place to lay these skills in the out
line of the world they inhabited, it can be almost disappointing—seemingly ethereal and without an “anchor.”

  It needs to be understood that the element that is always missing from any translated Japanese scroll is the human. It is the physical human being that holds these as practical skills. When the actual samurai is placed in the picture, with the skills and knowledge of war fixed on a human; our understanding of the scrolls comes to life. As a reader you have to fully imagine the world of the samurai–and the shinobi– in place with all of its details: The rules, customs, geography, and political climate. Then apply the shinobi skills to the already-accomplished warrior. What makes the shinobi popular in our image is that they moved beyond the normal ways of the samurai. They acquired a very special set of skills that elevated them to a new level. This is why the shinobi are compared to the special forces of today. They are sometimes officers, sometimes rank-and-file soldiers who have been trained outside of conventional arts. They perfected what we would see as “black ops” (with a hint of magic). Therefore, when you add this “special training” to the skill set of the samurai, the skills of the shinobi find their place and no longer float without meaning.

  The following original ninja scroll is a complete list—and only a list—of the shinobi arts found in the Akutagawa family, and are skills that are added to conventional military training. Only the titles are recorded here and I have given a brief explanation of the skills indicated [inside brackets]. They are broad and they expand beyond the contents of the original scroll. This is so that a general understanding of all shinobi arts can be gained. This is to show you, the reader, the makeup of a real shinobi system. This also allows for a better understanding with further information. The original manual is titled Akutagawa Kaden 芥川家伝, that is, Akutagawa Family Traditions. It is translated with kind permission from Jin’ichi Kawakami.

  The text:

  Fundamental Teachings