The Shock of the Anthropocene
Page 1
THE SHOCK OF
THE ANTHROPOCENE
THE SHOCK OF
THE ANTHROPOCENE
The Earth, History and Us
Christophe Bonneuil
and Jean-Baptiste Fressoz
Translated by David Fernbach
Cet ouvrage publié dans le cadre du programme d’aide à la publication
bénéficie du soutien du Ministère des Affaires Etrangères et du Service
Culturel de l’Ambassade de France représenté aux Etats-Unis.
This work received support from the French Ministry of Foreign
Affairs and the Cultural Services of the French Embassy in the
United States through their publishing assistance program.
This book has been published with the help of the project
with reference code HAR2013-40760-R of the Ministry
of Economy and Competitiveness (Spain)
First published in the English language by Verso 2016
Translation © David Fernbach 2016
Originally published as L’événement Anthropocène: La terre, l’histoire et nous
© Editions du Seuil 2013
All rights reserved
The moral rights of the authors have been asserted
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ISBN-13: 978-1-78478-081-4 (US EBK)
ISBN-13: 978-1-78478-082-1 (UK EBK)
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Bonneuil, Christophe, author. | Fressoz, Jean-Baptiste, author.
Title: The shock of the Anthropocene : the earth, history, and us /
Christophe Bonneuil, Jean-Baptiste Fressoz ; translated by David Fernbach.
Other titles: L’événement anthropocène. English
Description: Brooklyn, NY : Verso, 2016. | Translated from French.
Identifiers: LCCN 2015039878| ISBN 9781784780791 (hardback) | ISBN
9781784780814 (us ebook) | ISBN 9781784780821 (uk ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Human ecology. | Nature – Effect of human beings on. | Global
environmental change. | BISAC: SOCIAL SCIENCE / Human Geography.
Classification: LCC GF75 .B67 2016 | DDC 304.2 – dc23
LC record available at http://lccn.loc.gov/2015039878
Typeset in Minion by Hewer Text UK Ltd, Edinburgh, Scotland
Printed in the US by Maple Press
to Maia, Cecilia, Esteban, Pierre and
all other marbled newts
To Zam and all her chthonian regenerative forces
Contents
Acknowledgements
Preface
PART ONE
WHAT’S IN A WORD?
Chapter 1.Welcome to the Anthropocene
Chapter 2.Thinking with Gaia:
Towards Environmental Humanities
PART TWO
SPEAKING FOR THE EARTH, GUIDING HUMANITY:
Deconstructing the Geocratic Grand Narrative of the Anthropocene
Chapter 3.Clio, the Earth and the Anthropocenologists
Chapter 4.Who Is the Anthropos?
PART THREE
WHAT HISTORIES FOR THE ANTHROPOCENE?
Chapter 5.Thermocene: A Political History of CO2
Chapter 6.Thanatocene: Power and Ecocide
Chapter 7.Phagocene: Consuming the Planet
Chapter 8.Phronocene:
Grammars of Environmental Reflexivity
Chapter 9.Agnotocene:
Externalizing Nature, Economizing the World
Chapter 10.Capitalocene: A Combined History of Earth System and World-Systems
Chapter 11.Polemocene:
Resisting the Deterioration of the Earth since 1750
Conclusion: Surviving and Living the Anthropocene
Illustration Credits
Index
Acknowledgements
Our thanks to François Jarrige, Séverine Nikel, Clara Breteau, Alice Leroy, Josette Fressoz, Cecilia Berthaud and Rebecca Berthaut for their close readings of all or part of the manuscript, to David Fernbach, our translator, and Seb Budgen from Verso Books, to all our colleagues in the environmental sciences and humanities with whom we have had the pleasure of discussing the Anthropocene, and to the students of the seminar ‘Une histoire de l’Anthropocène’ held for the last four years at the École des hautes études en sciences sociales.
Preface
What exactly has been happening on Earth in the last quarter of a millennium?
The Anthropocene.
Anthropo-what?
We already live in the Anthropocene, so let us get used to this ugly word and the reality that it names. It is our epoch and our condition. This geological epoch is the product of the last few hundred years of our history. The Anthropocene is the sign of our power, but also of our impotence. It is an Earth whose atmosphere has been damaged by the 1,500 billion tonnes of carbon dioxide we have spilled by burning coal and other fossil fuels. It is the impoverishment and artificializing of Earth’s living tissue, permeated by a host of new synthetic chemical molecules that will even affect our descendants. It is a warmer world with a higher risk of catastrophes, a reduced ice cover, higher sea-levels and a climate out of control.
The Anthropocene label, proposed in the 2000s by specialists in Earth system sciences, is an essential tool for understanding what is happening to us. This is not just an environmental crisis, but a geological revolution of human origin.
We should not act as astonished ingénues who suddenly discover they are transforming the planet: the entrepreneurs of the industrial revolution who brought us into the Anthropocene actively willed this new epoch and shaped it. Saint-Simon, the herald of what was already called ‘industrialism’, maintained in the 1820s that:
The object of industry is the exploitation of the globe, that is to say, the appropriation of its products for the needs of man; and by accomplishing this task, it modifies the globe and transforms it, gradually changing the conditions of its existence. Man hence participates, unwittingly as it were, in the successive manifestations of the divinity, and thus continues the work of creation. From this point of view, Industry becomes religion.1
His pessimistic counterpart, Eugène Huzar, predicted in 1857:
In one or two hundred years, criss-crossed by railways and steamships, covered with factories and workshops, the world will emit billions of cubic metres of carbonic acid and carbon oxide, and, since the forests will have been destroyed, these hundreds of billions of carbonic acid and carbon oxide may indeed disturb the harmony of the world.2
The present book sets out to comprehend this new epoch through the narratives that can be made of it. It calls for new environmental humanities to rethink our visions of the world and our ways of inhabiting the Earth together. Scientists have built up data and models that already situate us beyond the point of no return to the Holocene, on the timetable of geological epochs. They have produced figures and curves that depict humanity as a major geological force. But what narratives can make sense of these dramatic curves?
This is by no means a theoretical question, as each account of ‘How did we get here?’ makes assumptions through which we frame ‘What to do now?’
There is already an official narrative of the Anthropocene:
‘we’, the human species, unconsciously destroyed nature to the point of hijacking the Earth system into a new geological epoch. In the late twentieth century, a handful of Earth system scientists finally opened our eyes. So now we know; now we are aware of the global consequences of human action.
This story of awakening is a fable. The opposition between a blind past and a clear-sighted present, besides being historically false, depoliticizes the long history of the Anthropocene. It serves above all to credit our own excellence. Its reassuring side is demobilizing. In the twenty years that it has prevailed, there has been a great deal of congratulation, while the Earth has become ever more set on a path of ecological unbalance.
In its managerial variant, the moral of the official account consists in giving the engineers of the Earth system the keys to ‘Spaceship Earth’; in its philosophical and incantatory variant, it consists in calling first and foremost for a revolution in morality and thought, which alone will allow the conclusion of an armistice between humans and non-humans, and reconciliation of all of us with the Earth.
To see the Anthropocene as an event rather than a thing means taking history seriously and learning to work with the natural sciences, without becoming mere chroniclers of a natural history of interactions between the human species and the Earth system. It also means noting that it is not enough to measure in order to understand, and that we cannot count on the accumulation of scientific data to carry out the necessary revolutions or involutions. It means deconstructing the official account in its managerial and non-conflictual variants, and forging new narratives for the Anthropocene and thus new imaginaries. Rethinking the past to open up the future.
Is the Anthropocene the age of man? Perhaps, but what does it mean for us, humans, to have the future of a planet in our hands? While welcoming the work of scientists and philosophers with open arms, we seek to comprehend the Anthropocene as historians, since, if ecological unbalance is now greater than ever before, this is not the first time that humans have asked themselves what they are doing to the planet. To forget past reflections and understandings, struggles and defeats, illusions and mistakes, would mean losing an experience that is precious for the present challenges.
We have passed the exit gate from the Holocene. We have reached a threshold. Realization of this must revolutionize the views of the world that became dominant with the rise of industrial capitalism based on fossil fuel. What historical narratives can we offer of the last quarter of a millennium, able to help us change our world-views and inhabit the Anthropocene more lucidly, respectfully and equitably? Such is the object of this book.
The first part presents the scientific dimensions of the Anthropocene (Chapter 1) along with its major implications for our views of the world, and for the human and social sciences (Chapter 2). The second part discusses the problems of the ‘geocratic’ account of the Anthropocene that is currently dominant. This depicts the Earth as a system seen from nowhere (Chapter 3), and history as a contest between the human species as a whole and the planet, with societies as ignorant and passive masses who can only be guided by scientists and saved by green technologies (Chapter 4). We shall show that an account of this kind naturalizes and depoliticizes our geohistory more than enables us to understand it. The third part sets out to trace different historical threads from the eighteenth century to today: a political history of energy and CO2 (Chapter 5, Thermocene), a history of the determining role of the military in the Anthropocene (Chapter 6, Thanatocene), a history of the making of the consumer society (Chapter 7, Phagocene), a history of environmental grammars, knowledge and warnings (Chapter 8, Phronocene), a history of the intellectual constructions that made it possible to ignore and marginalize these warnings and deny planetary limits and boundaries (Chapter 9, Agnotocene), an attempt at a joint history of capitalism and the Anthropocene (Chapter 10, Capitalocene), and finally, a history of socioecological struggles and challenges to the damages of industrialism (Chapter 11, Polemocene).
______________
1Doctrine de Saint-Simon, vol. 2, Paris: Aux Bureaux de l’Organisateur, 1830, 219.
2Eugène Huzar, L’Arbre de la science, Paris: Dentu, 1857, 106.
PART ONE: WHAT’S IN A WORD?
CHAPTER 1
Welcome to the
Anthropocene
In February 2000, a conference of the International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme held in Cuernavaca, Mexico, hosted a heated discussion about the age and intensity of human impacts on the planet. Paul Crutzen, an atmospheric chemist and Nobel Prize winner for his work on the ozone layer, stood up and exclaimed: ‘No! We’re no longer in the Holocene but in the Anthropocene!’ This was the birth of a new word, and above all of a new geological epoch. Two years later, in an article in the scientific periodical Nature, Crutzen developed his assertion further: the stratigraphic scale had to be supplemented by a new age, to signal that mankind had become a force of telluric amplitude. After the Pleistocene, which opened the Quaternary 2.5 million years back, and the Holocene, which began 11,500 years ago, ‘It seems appropriate to assign the term “Anthropocene” to the present, in many ways human-dominated, geological epoch.’1
The Nobel laureate proposed a starting date for this new era of 1784, the year that James Watt patented the steam engine, symbolic of the start of the industrial revolution and the ‘carbonification’ of our atmosphere by the burning of coal extracted from the lithosphere.
From the ancient Greek words anthropos meaning ‘human being’ and kainos meaning ‘recent, new’, the Anthropocene is then the new epoch of humans, the age of man. The Anthropocene is characterized by the fact that ‘the human imprint on the global environment has now become so large and active that it rivals some of the great forces of Nature in its impact on the functioning of the Earth system’.2 This is not the first time scientists have attested to or foreseen such human power over the fate of the planet, whether to celebrate it or as a cause for concern. As recently as 1778, in his Epochs of Nature volume of Histoire naturelle générale et particulière, Buffon explained that ‘the entire face of the Earth today bears the imprint of human power’. This imprint would be particularly exerted on climate. By judiciously modifying its environment, humanity would be able to ‘modify the influences of the climate it inhabits, and set the temperature to the level that suits it best’.3 Following him, the Italian geologist Antonio Stoppani defined man in 1873 as a ‘new telluric power’, and in the 1920s Vladimir I. Vernadsky, who introduced the concept of the biosphere, emphasized the growing human effect on the globe’s biogeochemical cycles.4
Nor was this the first time that scientists succumbed to anthropocentrism in making humanity a geological marker: the start of the Quaternary, in fact, was fixed to coincide with the appearance of the genus Homo 2.5 million years ago in Africa (Homo habilis), and the Holocene or ‘recent epoch’ was proposed by the geologist Charles Lyell on the basis of the end of the last glaciation but also on the then-believed coincident emergence of humans. The idea of adding the Holocene to the geologic time clock was put forward by Charles Lyell in 1833, but accepted only in 1885. Geologists, accustomed to working on the scale of the Earth’s 4.5-billion-year history, have no reason to hurry in making our entry into the Anthropocene official. Besides, if the history of our planet is reduced to a day of twenty-four hours, Homo habilis appeared only in the final minute, the Holocene began in the last quarter of a second, and the industrial revolution only in the two last thousandths of a second. With the Pleistocene counting in millions of years, and the Holocene in thousands, Crutzen’s boldness in proclaiming a new Anthropocene dating back no more than a couple of centuries is readily understandable. His proposal will very likely continue to be debated for a while to come. At the 34th congress of the International Union of Geological Sciences, held in Brisbane in 2012, it was decided to establish a task group that would submit its report in 2016.
While awaiting official validation by stratigraphers, however, the Anthropocene concept has alread
y become a rallying point for geologists, ecologists, climate and Earth system specialists, historians, philosophers, social scientists, ordinary citizens and ecological movements, as a way of conceiving this age in which humanity has become a major geological force.
What humans are doing to the Earth
What are the arguments put forward? What imprints do humans make on the planet, albeit in a differentiated way that we shall explore below? For atmospheric chemists such as Paul Crutzen, or climatologists such as the Australian Will Steffen and the Frenchman Claude Lorius, the weapon that put an end to the Holocene is to be found in the air: ‘The air trapped in ice is an abrupt indication that the hand of man, by inventing the steam engine, upset the world machine at the same time.’5 Fingers point to the greenhouse gases emitted by human activity. In relation to 1750, as a result of these emissions, the atmosphere has been ‘enriched’ in methane (CH4) to the tune of 150 per cent, nitrous oxide (N2O) by 63 per cent and carbon dioxide (CO2) by 43 per cent. As far as the last of these is concerned, its concentration has risen from 280 parts per million (ppm) on the eve of the industrial revolution to 400 ppm in 2013, a level unmatched for 3 million years. New ingredients have also entered the atmosphere since 1945: fluoride gases such as the CFCs and HCFCs particularly emitted by our refrigerators and air conditioners.
All these are ‘greenhouse’ gases inasmuch as they retain the heat that the Earth, warmed by the Sun, emits into space. And the accumulation of these gases in the atmosphere has not taken long to raise the planet’s temperature. Since the mid nineteenth century, the thermometer has already risen by 0.8°C, and the scenarios of the UN Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) foresee, depending on the political response they find, a total rise by the end of the present century of between 1.2°C and 6°C. A rise of 2°C in relation to the pre-industrial level, considered by the majority of climatologists as a danger threshold, will be very hard not to breach given the current lack of international political will, and, if the present tendency is not radically modified, climate experts predict a rise of 3.7°C to 4.5°C by 2100, with a whole train of meteorological disturbances and human miseries in its wake. The IPCC’s latest report even envisions a rise of 8°C to 12°C by 2300, given a ‘business as usual’ scenario. The Andean ice cover in Peru has disappeared in twenty-five years, and the polar ice has been melting in the last few years much faster than experts had expected. While the climatologists of the 1980s and ’90s conceived the relationship between concentration of greenhouse gases and climate change in a more or less global and linear fashion, systemic approaches and recent advances in modelling show that a small variation in the globe’s average temperature can lead to sudden and disorderly changes.