Recovering Native American Writings in the Boarding School Press
Page 34
Zuck, Rochelle Raineri. “‘Yours in the Cause’: Readers, Correspondents, and the Editorial Politics of Carlos Montezuma’s Wassaja.” American Periodicals: A Journal of History and Criticism 22, no. 1 (2012): 72–93.
Index
Page numbers refer to the print edition.
Page numbers in italics indicate photos.
abducted girls, 127–28, 130–31
The Absolutely True Diary of a Part-Time Indian (Alexie), 32
acting, 240–41
agriculture, 165–67, 242, 267–69, 305
alcoholism, 39, 58, 83–84, 89, 245–46, 303
Alexie, Sherman, 32
American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions (abcfm), 7, 10
American Indian Magazine, 5, 243, 253, 286, 320n7. See also Quarterly Journal of the Society of American Indians
animals, 152–53. See also specific animals
Arizona, 213–14
Armstrong, Gen. Samuel Chapman, 14, 15, 72
art, 93, 234–39, 246–49
assimilationist views: in boarding school newspapers, 12–14, 16–18; and Carlisle Barracks, 73; of John M. Oskison, 266–70; of Arthur C. Parker, 288; as part of boarding school writers’ viewpoint, 5, 8–9; of Capt. Richard Henry Pratt, 69; of Luther Standing Bear, 43–45. See also civilization/civilizing mission
Baltimore, 43–44, 96
Barnard, Kate, 305
basket-making, 233, 236
Baskin, Samuel, 81–82, 124–26
Bazhaw, Frank, 61
bead work, 235–36
Bear, Stella Vanessa, 127–33
Beardsley, Eli, 280, 331n8
bears, 87, 116, 117, 118–19, 147, 148, 152, 175–77, 212
Bender, Anna, 90–94, 95, 134–40
Bender, Charles A., 280
Bender, Elizabeth, 19, 26, 95–96, 280, 308–15, 331n8
Benson, Frank, 251
berry picking, 232
bigamy, 270–78
Big Dipper, 137–40
birch bark, 231–32
birds, 141–42, 161–65
black bears, 175–77
Blackfeet, 95, 311–15
Black Pipe, 208–13
blankets, 237, 238
boarding school newspapers: assimilationist views in, 12–14, 16–18; and Hallaquah, 1; as hidden resource, 5–6; lack of scholarly study of, 4–5; list of, 31; mission of, 2–3; needed preservation of, 32; as a source of community, 12; use of as school propaganda, 16–18, 324n4. See also Hallaquah; Indian Helper; School News; Southern Workman; Talks and Thoughts
boarding school students: and assimilationist views, 12–14; challenging stereotypes about Natives, 23–25; critical understanding of, 3–4; varied viewpoint of their writing, 8–9; view of their education, 19–23
Bonnin, Gertrude (Zitkala-Ša): battles with boarding school newspapers, 13–14; biographical information, 178, 252–54, 323n2; and Angel De Cora, 243–44; defends Native dance, 27; as editor, 11, 320n7; on oral tradition, 322n20; writings, 254–63
Bonnin, Raymond, 253
Bonwill, Huldah, 40, 324n6
Boston, 92–94
Boudinot, Elias, 7, 8, 10
bow and arrows, 174–75
Brainerd School, 7
Brown, Catharine, 7, 320n6
buffalo: hunt, 57, 65, 113–14, 134, 167–72; preservation, 115; in story, 116, 117
bullfrog, 284–85
bulrushes, 232
Bureau of Indian Affairs (bia), 10
Burgess, Marianna, 20, 324n3
burial, 132
Burton, Frederick, 240, 241
Bushyhead (Cherokee), 281
buzzards, 153, 164
canoes, 233
The Captain of the Gray Horse Troop (Garland), 268
Carlisle Arrow and Red Man, 323n21
Carlisle Indian Industrial School: and art, 238; Gertrude Bonnin at, 252; and Henry Caruthers, 65, 66–67; Angel De Cora at, 251; English-only policy, 325n13; founded, 15; and girls’ education, 309–10; graduates of, 279–80; importance of writers’ tie to, 11; later years of, 322n16; mission of, 16; and Mary North, 74; and Luther Standing Bear, 43, 324n12; and Samuel Townsend, 41–42; use of newspapers as propaganda for, 16–18. See also Indian Helper; Pratt, Capt. Richard Henry; School News
Carter, Caleb, 101–6, 151–53
Carter, Charles D., 300, 331n7
Carter Indian Code Bill, 300
cave dweller, 128
ceremonial dances: Gertrude Bonnin defends, 27, 330n3; and drum used in, 234; outlived use of, 315; protest against abolition of, 258–63; significance of, 191–93, 226; sun, 77–78; war, 102–3, 113; of Winnebago, 245
Cherokee, 7, 10, 83–84, 87–89, 270, 320n6
Cherokee Phoenix, 8, 10
Cherokee Rose Buds, 10
Cheyenne Agency, 67–68
Chickasaw, 56, 270
Childers, Ellis Buffington, 55
Chinook wind, 151
Chippewa, 26
Choctaw, 56, 270
Christianity, 202, 203, 287, 307, 310, 321n13
Christmas Day, 101–4
church, 189, 270–78. See also Christianity
civilization/civilizing mission: arguments for and against, 289–98; of art, 247–48; betrayal of, 198–200; Joseph Du Bray essay on, 76–77; and education, 246–47, 254–58; effect of on Winnebago, 244–46; of federal boarding schools, 14–18; importance of stressed in editorials, 56–60; Arizona Jackson on, 40; and jobs, 286–89; Carlos Montezuma writings on, 180–98; talking back to, 24; transformed by boarding school students, 22–23. See also assimilationist views
Cloud, Henry Roe, 19, 96, 301–7
Cody, William, 241
colleges, 306–7
commencement address, 25, 204–6
commercialization of art, 234, 237–38
Cooper, James Fenimore, 227
corn, 166–67, 172–73, 242
Cornwall Foreign Mission School, 7
cotton, 242
coyotes, 151, 152–53
creation myths, 128–30, 133
Creek, 270, 272, 273
Crow Creek Chief, 19
Crow Creek Herald, 19
Crow Indians, 103, 112, 113, 213, 275
crows, 126
Curtin, Mr. (Carlisle teacher), 68
Curtis, Natalie, 240
Cushing, Frank, 229
Custer, General, 229
cyclone, 206–8
Dagenett, Charles A., 280
dances. See ceremonial dances
Dartmouth College, 7
Davis, Oscar, 280
death, 132–33
DeCamp, Joseph, 251
De Cora, Angel: autobiography, 249–51; biographical information, 19, 238, 239, 243–44; defends Native art, 29; and Indian Craftsman, 323n21; writing of, 239–49
Deems, Dr., 71
deer, 142–43, 147–48, 173–74
Densmore, Frances, 79
Dietz, William, 29, 238–39, 323n21
dishes, 234, 237
division of labor, 223–24
dogs, 139
domestic science education, 308–11
Dorsey, James O., 157
Du Bray, Joseph, 75–77, 109–10
ducks, 126, 130
eagles: and Black Pipe, 210; in legend, 163–65; in story, 116, 117, 129, 147–48, 152
Earlham College, 39–40, 252
Earlhamite, 252
Eastman, Charles A., 19, 25, 29, 201–42
Eastman, Jacob, 201, 202–3
education: of Apache boy, 178–80; of boarding schools, 269–70; at Carlisle School, 41–42; and civilizing Indians, 187–88, 189–90, 195, 196, 199, 246–47; for girls, 308–11; in Harbor Springs mi, 99; importance of stressed in editorials, 56–60; and Indian progress, 301–2, 303–4, 305–7; Francis La Flesche’s view of, 158–59; mentioned in commencement address, 204; and Mary North, 74; at Seneca Indian School, 37–38; and training schools, 289; from viewpoint of teacher, 311–15
Eliot, Jo
hn, 92
elk, 174
Enouf, James, 61
ethnology, 229–30
Ettawageshik, J. William, 98–100, 149–50
farming. See agriculture
feathers, 103
federal boarding schools, 6–8, 14–18, 320n8, 321n13
festivals, 215–19
Filmore, J. C., 240
Fire Lightning, 216, 217
fish/fishing, 69, 152, 153, 231
fish-nets, 233
Fletcher, Alice C., 157, 230, 240
flowers and art, 93, 235, 249
Foard, Josephine, 238
Fort Marion, 15, 69–70
Fowler, David, 8
foxes, 109–10, 118–19
gambling, 193–94, 284–85
Garfield, James A., 60
Garland, Hamlin, 229–30, 268
ghosts, 112–13, 132
gnus, 120–21
god, 208–13, 221
Grey, Lucy, 52, 54, 325n3
Grey Eagle, 216, 218–19
Grinnell, George B., 229, 268–69
grizzly bears, 212
groundhogs, 85–86
Gunter, Catharine, 10
Hallaquah: editorial control of, 5; editorials, 49–51, 52–54; front page, xiv; Arizona Jackson letter on, 38–39; mission, 1; reprinting by, 12
Hallaquah Literary Society, 38
Hampton Institute: and Angel De Cora, 250; and Joseph Du Bray, 75; founded, 15; and Henry Caruthers Roman Nose, 70, 71–73; use of Natives for promotion, 95; use of newspaper as propaganda for, 16–18. See also Southern Workman; Talks and Thoughts
Hand, Harry, 19, 27, 111–17
Harbor Springs mi, 98–100
Harjo, old, 270–78
harvest, 172–73
Hayes, Rutherford, 60, 72
head-dresses, 233
health, 54, 135–37, 304, 314–15, 324n12, 325n2
Hiawatha (Longfellow), 227, 241
Hicks, Nancy E., 10
hides, preparing, 171–72, 233
Higheagle, Robert Placidus, 79–80, 120–23
horses, 134, 313
Hubbard, Frank, 61, 62
Hubbard, Jeremiah, 38
Hughes (Cherokee), 281
hunting: black bears, 175–77; buffalo, 57, 65, 113–14, 134, 167–72; deer, 173–74; Ojibwa, 231; by Plains Indians, 167–72; small game, 175
immigration, 303
Indian Craftsman, 323n21
Indian Helper, 4, 16, 18, 322n17
Indian maid disappeared, 127–28
Indian problem: Elizabeth Bender’s view of, 308; and education, 14; Francis La Flesche’s view of, 157–61; and legal rights, 299; Carlos Montezuma’s view of, 180–98; Arthur C. Parker’s view of, 288–89
Indian Territory, 67–68
industrial education, 307
inequality, 302
Iroquois, 287–89
Ite Waste, 124–26
Jackson, Arizona, 1, 37–40, 319n3, 323n2, 324n3, 324n4
Jackson, Helen Hunt, 227
Jacksonville, 70
Jeffe (Cherokee), 281
Johnson, Ida, 1, 37, 49, 319n3, 324n3
Johnson, James E., 279–80
John, Johnson, 7
Josephines, 95
Kellogg, Laura Cornelius, 264, 265
Kihega, Charles, 20, 55
La Flesche, Francis, 157–77
Lame Deer, 216, 218
land ownership, 87–89, 204, 268–69
language learning, 15, 22, 159–60, 203
language loss, 45, 59, 62, 325n13
Last of the Mohicans (Cooper), 227
La Vatta, Emma, 147–48
Lee, Alonzo, 83–89
Lee, Ma, 72, 73
legal rights, 299–300, 304
Leupp, Francis E., 17, 243, 251, 322n16, 329n3
literature, 227, 230
Little Big Horn, Battle of, 229
Little Bison, 281
lobster, 153
Longfellow, Henry Wadsworth, 227, 241
Longstreth, Susan, 39–40, 323n3
Loring, Harold A., 240
Lovejoy, Annie, 61
malaria, 54
Mani, Thomas, 280
maple sugar, 149–50, 231, 242
marten, 86
McVickar, Bishop, 96
meadow larks, 138
Medicine Dance, 245
medicine man/woman: Black Pipe’s becoming, 208–13; and cyclone, 206–8; and hunt, 113, 114; significance of, 92; in story, 134, 135–37
Miles, General, 218
Miles, John D., 68
Miller, Edgar K., 323n21
mink, 86–87
moccasins, 233
Mohonk Indian Conference, 237
moles, 128–29
Montezuma, Carlos, 10, 178–200, 265
Mooney, James, 229
Moor’s Indian Charity School, 7
Morgan, Jacob, 280, 331n8
motherhood, 245–46
mountain goats, 153
mountain lions, 211
mules, 282–84
murder, 220
music, 239–40
Muzzinyegun, 9–10
National Council of American Indians, 253
Native American periodicals, 9–11, 31, 32
Native character, 160–61, 225–27, 228, 283–84
Native customs/cultural traditions: changed by white contact, 225–27; of daily life, 220–24; essay on, 75–76; of Nez Percé, 102–4; and Ojibwas, 230–34; Tipi-iyokihe, 79–80; writings supporting, 27, 29. See also ceremonial dances
Native history presentation, 227–28, 229, 230
Native inventions, 241–42
Native knowledge, 81–82
Native naturalist, 85–87
Native religion, 84–85, 90–92. See also ceremonial dances
Navajo blankets, 237, 238
New York City, 66, 96–97
Nez Percé, 101–6
Nori, Siceni, 279
North, Mary, 20, 74
Occom, Samson, 7
O’Hara, Geoffrey, 240
Ojibwa: Elizabeth Bender and, 26; folklore, 10, 294; and Hiawatha, 99, 241; life and handicrafts, 230–34, 242, 249; music, 240
Olathe Gazette, 50
opossums, 142–46
orators, 226, 228
Osage, 157, 175, 214–15
Oskison, John M., 24–25, 266–85
Owl, William J., 141–46
Owl River, 122–23
owls, 116, 117, 122–23, 129
panthers, 143–46
Parker, Arthur C., 11, 12, 25–26, 178, 286–300
Pawnee, 66, 132–33, 294
Peace Pipe, 30
Philadelphia, 96
Pima, 214
pipes, 114–15, 169, 234
Pipestone Indian School, 30
pneumonia, 54
Ponca, 220
Pontiac, 228
porcupine quills, 137
pottery, 236–37
Powlas, Dr., 280
Pratt, Capt. Richard Henry: and Gertrude Bonnin (Zitkala-Ša), 252, 330n1; and Henry Caruthers, 65, 66, 68, 69, 70, 71, 73; and civilizing mission of Carlisle, 22; editing work, 324n3; and Florida Boys, 326n4; mentioned in commencement address, 204, 205; monitors School News, 20; as Native education reformer, 14–15, 16; resigns from Carlisle, 24, 322n16; in Standing Bear’s letter, 44; uses Native writing as propaganda, 8
printing as vocation, 41, 42
prison, 69–70
professions, 278–82, 304
progress, 289–307
Pyle, Howard, 238, 250
Quarterly Journal of the Society of American Indians, 10, 11, 12, 286. See also American Indian Magazine
rabbits, 138–39
racism, 56–57
Ramona (Jackson), 227
rattlesnakes, 114
readerly Indians, 8
Red Cloud, 217–18
Red Man, 239, 322n17, 323n21
religion: and art, 236; of Henry Caruthers Roman Nose,
67; choice of, 304–5; and civilizing mission, 196, 202, 203; Native, 84–85, 90–92; at Seneca Indian School, 38. See also Christianity
religious ceremony, 174, 231. See also ceremonial dances
reservations: Charles Eastman’s view of, 225; Laura Cornelius Kellogg’s view of, 264; Carlos Montezuma’s view of, 185–86, 191, 195–96, 199; John M. Oskison’s view of, 267
Roe, Mary, 332n1
Roe, Walter C., 307, 332n1
Rogers, Edward, 280
Roman Nose, Henry Caruthers, 20, 65–73, 326n4, 326n9
Romayn, Capt., 72
Roosevelt, Theodore, 268
rug weaving, 248–49
Savannah, 70
scalping, 76, 102–3, 113, 114, 128, 165, 202
Schanandoah, Chapman, 118–19
school. See education
Schoolcraft, Henry R., 9–10
Schoolcraft, Jane, 10
School News, 12, 20, 21, 41, 55–60, 325n13
Seneca Indian School, 1, 37–38, 319n1. See also Hallaquah
Sherman Institute, 269, 331n2
Sickles, Caleb, 280
sickness, 135–37
Sitting Bull, 241
skins, tanning, 171–72, 233
Sloan, Thomas L., 320n7
Smithsonian Institution, 72
Smoot, Reed, 331n5
snakes, 114, 148
Society of American Indians (sai), 5, 243, 253, 264, 266, 286, 300
Southern Workman, 18, 61, 280
squirrels, 135–37
Standing Bear, Luther, 20, 22, 43–45, 324n11, 324n12
Standing Rock land leases, 268–69
St. Augustine fl, 69
Stevens, Addie, 61
storytellers, 27, 162–65
Sun Dance, 77–78
Swift Star, 124–26
Talks and Thoughts, 12, 28, 61, 62, 75, 325n6
Tarbell, Edmund C., 251
Tecumseh, 228
teepees, 232–33
temperance, 39
Tipi-iyokihe, 79–80
tortoise, 213
Townsend, Samuel, 23, 24, 41–42, 55–60
trachoma, 314–15
training for long distance running, 104–6
training school, 289
Tryon, Dwight W., 250
turkey buzzard, 142
United States, government of, 87–89
university, Native, 25–26, 298
vanishing Indian notion, 26–27
vultures, 213
Walker, Bertrand (Hen-toh), 52
Walker, Lula, 1, 37, 49, 319n3, 324n3
war, 111–12, 120, 222–23, 229
war dance, 102–3, 113
Wassaja: Freedom’s Signal for the Indians, 10, 178
weaving, 248–49
Wheelock, Dennison, 4, 240
Wheelock, Eleazar, 7, 8
Wheelock, James, 240
wild-rice harvest, 232, 242