The Social Costs of Pornography: A Collection of Papers

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46 Steven Stack, Ira Wasserman, and Roger Kern, “Adult Social Bonds and Use of Internet Pornography,” Social Science Quarterly 85, no. 1 (2004): 75–88.

  47 Jason S. Carroll et al., “Generation XXX: Pornography Acceptance and Use Among Emerging Adults,” Journal of Adolescent Research 23, no. 1 (2008): 6–30.

  48 Ibid.

  49 Ibid.

  50 Ibid., 23.

  51 Gert Martin Hald, “Gender Differences in Pornography Consumption Among Young Heterosexual Danish Adults,” Archives of Sexual Behavior 35, no. 5 (2006): 577–85.

  52 Carroll et al., “Generation XXX,” 24.

  53 Enid Burns, “The Online Battle of the Sexes,” ClickZ, 29 December 2005, http://www.clickz. com/3574176 (accessed 7 July 2008); Cooper, Delmonico, and Burg, “Cybersex Users, Abusers, and Compulsives.”

  54 Cooper, Delmonico, and Burg, “Cybersex Users, Abusers, and Compulsives.”

  55 Ana J. Bridges, R. M. Bergner, and M. Hesson-McInnis, “Romantic Partners’ Use of Pornography: Its Significance for Women,” Journal of Sex and Marital Therapy 29, no. 1 (2003): 1–14; Jill C. Manning, “A Qualitative Study of the Supports Women Find Most Beneficial When Dealing with a Spouse’s Sexually Addictive or Compulsive Behaviors,” unpublished doctoral dissertation (Provo, Utah: Brigham Young University, 2006); Schneider, “Effects of Cybersex Addiction on the Family.”

  56 Barbara A. Steffens and Robyn L. Rennie, “The Traumatic Nature of Disclosure for Wives of Sexual Addicts,” Sexual Addiction & Compulsivity 13, nos. 2 and 3 (2006): 247–67.

  57 Jill C. Manning, “A Qualitative Study of the Supports Women Find Most Beneficial”; M. Lynn Wildmon-White, and J. Scott Young, “Family-of-Origin Characteristics Among Women Married to Sexually Addicted Men,” Sexual Addiction & Compulsivity 9, no. 4 (2002): 263–73.

  58 Bridges et al., “Romantic Partners’ Use of Pornography.”

  59 Schneider, “Effects of Cybersex Addiction on the Family.”

  60 Dedmon, “Is the Internet Bad for Your Marriage?”

  61 Ibid.

  62 Stack et al., “Adult Social Bonds and Use of Internet Pornography.”

  63 Patrick J. Carnes, Don’t Call It Love (New York: Bantam Books, 1991); Schneider, “Effects of Cybersex Addiction on the Family”; Wildmon-White and Young, “Family-of-Origin Characteristics Among Women Married to Sexually Addicted Men.”

  64 Judith C. Heaton Matheny, “Strategies for Assessment and Early Treatment with Sexually Addicted Families,” Sexual Addiction & Compulsivity 5, no. 1 (1998): 27–48.

  65 Wildmon-White and Young, “Family-of-Origin Characteristics Among Women Married to Sexually Addicted Men.”

  66 Manning, “A Qualitative Study of the Supports Women Find Most Beneficial.”

  67 Ibid.

  68 Mark Laaser, Faithful and True: Sexual Integrity in a Fallen World (Grand Rapids, Mich.: Zondervan, 1996); Wildmon-White and Young, “Family-of-Origin Characteristics Among Women Married to Sexually Addicted Men”; Eunjung Ryu, “Spousal Use of Pornography and Its Clinical Significance for Asian-American Women: Korean Women as an Illustration,” Journal of Feminist Family Therapy 16, no. 4 (2004): 75–89; Janet Hinson Shope, “When Words Are Not Enough: The Search for the Effect of Pornography on Abused Women,” Violence Against Women 10, no. 1 (2004): 56–72.

  69 Laaser, “Faithful and True”; Ryu, “Spousal Use of Pornography”; Hinson Shope, “When Words Are Not Enough.”

  70 Rachel Kennedy Bergen, “The Reality of Wife Rape: Women’s Experiences of Sexual Violence in Marriage,” in Issues in Intimate Violence, ed. Rachel Kennedy Bergen (Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage, 1998), 237–50.

  71 S. B. Boeringer, “Pornography and Sexual Aggression: Associations of Violent and Nonviolent Depictions with Rape and Rape Proclivity,” Deviant Behavior 15, no. 3 (1994): 289–304.

  72 Leslie L. Crossman, Date Rape and Sexual Aggression by College Males: Incidence and the Involvement of Impulsivity, Anger, Hostility, Psychopathology, Peer Influence, and Pornography Use, unpublished doctoral dissertation (College Station: Texas A&M University, 1994).

  73 Elizabeth Cramer and Judith McFarlane, “Pornography and Abuse of Women,” Public Health Nursing 11, no. 4 (1994): 268–72.

  PORNOGRAPHY’S EFFECTS ON INTERPERSONAL RELATIONSHIPS

  1 Mimi H. Silbert and Ayala M. Pines, “Pornography and Sexual Abuse of Women,” Sex Roles 10, nos. 11–12 ( June 1984): 857.

  2 David Loftus, Watching Sex: How Men Really Respond to Pornography (New York: Da Capo Press, 2003).

  3 Albert Bandura, “Behavioral Psychotherapy,” Scientific American 216, no. 3 (March 1967): 78–86.

  4 Robert Bauserman, “Sexual Aggression and Pornography: A Review of Correlational Research,” Basic and Applied Social Psychology 18, no. 4 (December 1996): 405–27.

  5 Neil M. Malamuth, “Aggression Against Women: Cultural and Individual Causes,” in Pornography and Sexual Aggression, eds. Neil M. Malamuth and Edward Donnerstein (New York: Academic Press, 1984).

  6 Michael S. Kimmel and Annulla Linders, “Does Censorship Make a Difference? An Aggregate Empirical Analysis of Pornography and Rape,” Journal of Psychology and Human Sexuality 8, no. 3 (August 1996): 1–20.

  7 BBC News, 26 January 2009, “Mother’s Violent Porn Ban Now Law,” http://news.bbc. co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/england/berkshire/7851346.stm; Alan McKee (2005). “The Objectification of Women in Mainstream Porn Videos in Australia,” Journal of Sex Research, 42, 277–90.

  8 Ramesh Lakshmi-Ratan and Easwar Iyer, “Similarity Analysis of Cognitive Scripts,” Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science 16, no. 2 (1988): 36–42.

  9 Hans-Bernd Brosius et al., “Exploring the Social and Sexual ‘Reality’ of Contemporary Pornography,” Journal of Sex Research 30, no. 2 (1993): 161–70.

  10 Donald L. Mosher and Paula MacIan, “College Men and Women Respond to X-Rated Videos Intended for Male or Female Audiences: Gender and Sexual Scripts,” Journal of Sex Research 31, no. 2 (1994): 99–112.

  11 Joan Shapiro and Lee Kroeger, “Is Life Just a Romantic Novel? The Relationship Between Attitudes About Intimate Relationships and the Popular Media,” American Journal of Family Therapy 19, no. 3 (September 1991): 226–36.

  12 Robert Wosnitzer and Ana J. Bridges, “Aggression and Sexual Behavior in Best-Selling Pornography: A Content Analysis Update” (paper presented at the annual meeting of the International

  13 Pornography of the sort analyzed by Brosius et al., “Exploring the Social and Sexual,” and Wosnitzer and Bridges, “Aggression and Sexual Behavior.”

  14 Mosher and MacIan, “College Men and Women Respond to X-Rated Videos.”

  15 Cory Newman and Christine L. Ratto, “Cognitive Therapy of Substance Abuse,” in Comparative Treatments of Substance Abuse, eds. E. Thomas Dowd and Loreen G. Rugle (New York: Springer, 1999), 96–126.

  16 Ana J. Bridges, Raymond M. Bergner, and Matthew Hesson-McInnis, “Romantic Partners’ Use of Pornography: Its Significance for Women,” Journal of Sex and Marital Therapy 29, no. 1 ( January–February 2003): 1–14.

  17 Mary Anne Layden, “Use of Pornography, Including Internet Pornography, Nonconsensual Sex, Use of Prostitutes, Acceptance of the Rape Myth, and Permission-Giving Beliefs” (paper presented at the annual meeting of the Association for Behavioral and Cognitive Therapies, Orlando, Fla., 2008); Loftus, Watching Sex.

  18 Bridges, Bergner, and Hesson-McInnis, “Romantic Partners’ Use of Pornography.”

  19 Elisabet Häggström-Nordin, Tanja Tydén, and Ulf Hanson, “Associations Between Pornography Consumption and Sexual Practices Among Adolescents in Sweden,” International Journal of STD & AIDS 16, no. 2 (2005): 102–7.

  20 H. Wesley Perkins, “Social Norms and the Prevention of Alcohol Misuse in Collegiate Contexts,” Journal of Studies on Alcohol, supplement 14 (2002): 164–72; Schultz et al., “The Constructive, Destructive, and Reconstructive Power of Social Norms,” Journal of Psychological Science 18, no. 5 (2007): 429–34.

  21 Dan Ariely and George Loewenstein, �
��The Heat of the Moment: The Effect of Sexual Arousal on Sexual Decision Making,” Journal of Behavioral Decision Making 19 (2006): 87–98.

  22 Carol Krafka et al., “Women’s Reactions to Sexually Aggressive Mass Media Depictions,” Violence Against Women 3, no. 2 (1997): 149–81.

  23 Ibid.

  24 Pamela Paul, Pornified: How Pornography is Damaging Our Lives, Our Relationships, and Our Families (New York: Henry Holt and Co., 2005).

  25 Larry Baron and Murray Straus, “Sexual Stratification, Pornography, and Rape in the United States,” in Pornography and Sexual Aggression, eds. Neil M. Malamuth and Edward Donnerstein (New York: Academic Press, 1984), 185–209.

  26 American Psychological Association, Report of the APA Task Force on the Sexualization of Girls (Washington, D.C., 2007), http://www.apa.org/pi/wpo/sexualization.html (accessed 5 December 2008).

  27 Gina M. Wingood et al., “Exposure to X-Rated Movies and Adolescents’ Sexual and Contraceptive- Related Attitudes and Behaviors,” Pediatrics 107, no. 5 (5 May 2001): 1116–19.

  28 Häggström-Nordin, Tydén, and Hanson, “Associations Between Pornography Consumption and Sexual Practices.”

  29 Ibid., 9.

  30 Luis T. Garcia, ”Exposure to Pornography and Attitudes About Women and Rape: A Correlational Study,” Journal of Sex Research 22, no. 3 (August 1986): 378–85.

  31 Daniel G. Linz, Steven Penrod, and Edward Donnerstein, “Effects of Long-Term Exposure to Violent and Sexually Degrading Depictions of Women,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 55, no. 5 (1988): 758–68.

  32 Daniel Linz, “Exposure to Sexually Explicit Materials and Attitudes Toward Rape: A Comparison of Study Results,” Journal of Sex Research 26, no. 1 (February 1989): 50–84.

  33 Isaac Marks and Reuven Dar, “Fear Reduction by Psychotherapies: Recent Findings, Future Directions,” British Journal of Psychiatry 176 (2000): 507–11.

  34 Diana E. H. Russell, Against Pornography: The Evidence of Harm (Berkeley, Calif.: Russell Publications, 1993).

  35 Linz, Penrod, and Donnerstein, “Effects of Long-Term Exposure.”

  36 Krafka et al., “Women’s Reactions to Sexually Aggressive Mass Media Depictions.”

  37 Anthony Mulac, Laura Jansma, and Daniel Linz, “Men’s Behavior Toward Women After Viewing Sexually Explicit Films: Degradation Makes a Difference,” Communication Monographs 69, no. 4 (December 2002): 311–28.

  38 Edward Donnerstein and Gary Barrett, “Effects of Erotic Stimuli on Male Aggression Toward Females,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 36, no. 2 (February 1978): 180–88.

  39 Gordon C. Nagayama Hall, Richard Hirschman, and Lori L. Oliver, “Ignoring a Woman’s Dislike of Sexual Material: Sexually Impositional Behavior in the Laboratory,” Journal of Sex Research 31, no. 1 (1994): 3–10.

  40 Bridges, Bergner, and Hesson-McInnis, “Romantic Partners’ Use of Pornography.”

  41 Christina A. Clark and Michael W. Wiederman, “Gender and Reactions to a Hypothetical Relationship Partner’s Masturbation and Use of Sexually Explicit Media,” Journal of Sex Research 37, no. 2 (2000): 133–41; C. Moll and Ana J. Bridges, “Women’s Perceptions of How Partner Pornography Use Affects Self-Esteem: Empirical Test of Three Variables,” in progress.

  42 Beatrice E. Robinson et al., “Therapeutic Uses of Sexually Explicit Materials in the United States and the Czech and Slovak Republics,” Journal of Sex and Marital Therapy 25, no. 2 (April 1999): 103–19.

  43 Alvin Cooper et al., “Sexuality on the Internet: From Sexual Exploration to Pathological Expression,” Professional Psychology 30, no. 2 (April 1999): 154–64.

  44 Bridges, Bergner, and Hesson-McInnis, “Romantic Partners’ Use of Pornography.”

  45 Patrick Carnes, Out of the Shadows: Understanding Sexual Addiction (Center City, Minn.: Hazelden, Pa., 1983); Alvin Cooper, David Delmonico, and Ron Burg, “Cybersex Users, Abusers, and Compulsives: New Findings and Implications,” Sexual Addiction & Compulsivity 7, nos. 1 and 2 (2000): 5–29; Natasha Petty Levert, “A Comparison of Christian and Non-Christian Males, Authoritarianism, and Their Relation to Internet Pornography Addiction/Compulsion,” Sexual Addiction & Compulsivity 14, no. 2 (2007): 145–66.

  46 Jennifer P. Schneider, “Effects of Cybersex Addiction on the Family: Results of a Survey,” Sexual Addiction & Compulsivity 7, nos. 1 and 2 (2000): 31–58.

  47 Andrea Coombes, “Computer Infidelity: Online Chat, Porn Increasing Factors in Divorce,” CBS MarketWatch, 2002, http://www.marketwatch.com/News/Story/Story.aspx?guid=%7BE69 E5888-614A-4327-8917 (accessed 5 December 2008).

  48 Cooper et al., “Sexuality on the Internet”; Martin P. Kafka, “The Paraphilia-Related Disorders: Nonparaphilic Hypersexuality and Sexual Compulsivity/Addiction,” in Principles and Practice of Sex Therapy, 3rd ed., eds. Sandra R. Leiblum and Raymond C. Rosen (New York: Guilford Press, 2000), 471–503.

  49 Raymond Bergner and Ana J. Bridges, “The Significance of Heavy Pornography Involvement for Romantic Partners: Research and Clinical Implications,” Sex and Marital Therapy 28, no. 3 (May 2002): 193–206.

  50 Tara McGahan and Ana J. Bridges, “What Traits Do Men and Women Want in a Romantic Partner? Stated Preferences Versus Actual Behavior,” in progress.

  51 Steven Stack, Ira Wasserman, and Roger Kern, “Adult Social Bonds and Use of Internet Pornography,” Social Science Quarterly 85, no. 1 (March 2004): 75–88.

  52 Bergner and Bridges, “The Significance of Heavy Pornography Involvement.”

  53 Dolf Zillmann and Jennings Bryant, “Pornography’s Impact on Sexual Satisfaction,” Journal of Applied Social Psychology 18, no. 5 (1988): 438–53.

  54 Ana J. Bridges and Patricia Morokoff, “Sexual Media Use and Relational Satisfaction in Heterosexual Couples. Personal Relationships,” in press.

  55 Ana J. Bridges, Tara McGahan, and Patricia Morokoff, “The Association Between Shared Use of Sexually Explicit Materials and Satisfaction in Romantic Couples” (poster presented at the annual meeting of the Association for Behavioral and Cognitive Therapies, Orlando, Fla., 2008).

  56 Sara E. Pearson and Robert H. Pollack, “Female Response to Sexually Explicit Films,” Journal of Psychology and Human Sexuality 9, no. 2 ( June 1997): 73–88.

  57 Cooper et al., “Sexuality on the Internet.”

  58 Alvin Cooper et al., “Toward an Increased Understanding of User Demographics in Online Sexual Activities,” Journal of Sex and Marital Therapy 28, no. 2 (March 2002): 105–29.

  59 Monica Therese Whitty, “Pushing the Wrong Buttons: Men’s and Women’s Attitudes Toward Online and Offline Infidelity,” CyberPsychology and Behavior 6, no. 6 (2003): 569–79.

  60 Janet Hinson Shope, “When Words Are Not Enough: The Search for the Effect of Pornography on Abused Women,” Violence Against Women 10, no. 1 (2004) 56–72.

  61 Schneider, “Effects of Cybersex Addiction on the Family.”

  62 Charlene Y. Senn, “Women’s Multiple Perspectives and Experiences with Pornography,” Psychology of Women Quarterly 17, no. 3 (1993): 319–41.

  63 Ibid.

  64 Clark and Wiederman, “Gender and Reactions.”

  65 Moll and Bridges, “Women’s Perceptions.”

  66 Bergner and Bridges, “The Significance of Heavy Pornography Involvement.”

  67 Bridges, Bergner, and Hesson-McInnis, “Romantic Partners’ Use of Pornography.”

  PART TWO

  PORNOGRAPHY: SETTLING THE QUESTION IN PRINCIPLE

  1 The account of the encounter with Dr. Densen-Gerber is set down in Hadley Arkes, The Philosopher in the City (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1981), 414–15.

  2 United Press International, “Damage Suit Scores ‘Frito Bandito’ Ads,” New York Times, 1 January 1971, final edition, p. 31.

  3 Arkes, The Philosopher in the City.

  4 Ibid., 46–50; Hadley Arkes, First Things (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1986).

  5 See Oliver Wendell Holmes, “The Path of the Law,” Collected Lega
l Papers (New York: Harcourt Brace and Company, 1920), 179. By way of contrast, see Roscoe Pound, Law and Morals (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1926), 74–75.

  6 Arkes, The Philosopher in the City, 403.

  7 See, as the most notable example, Justice David Souter’s dissenting opinion in the “topless dancing case,” Barnes v. Glen Theatre, 501 U.S. 560 (1991).

  8 Lynn S. Chancer, Reconcilable Differences: Confronting Beauty, Pornography, and the Future of Feminism (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998).

  9 Ibid., 194.

  10 Ibid., 196.

  11 Alan H. Goldman, “Plain Sex,” Philosophy & Public Affairs 6, no. 3 (Spring 1977): 267–87.