49 At River Rouge . . . workspace: Ibid., 293.
49 River Rouge had its own . . . single facility: Ibid., 212-16.
50 By the 1950s, both New York and Detroit started shrinking: U.S. Census Bureau, Population Division, Release Date June 2010; and Gibson, “Population of the 100 Largest Cities.”
50 Between 1890 and today . . . twenty cents to two: Glaeser and Kohlhase, “Decline of Transport Costs.”
50 Samuel Gompers, the founder: Harvey, Samuel Gompers, 40-44.
50 was a cigar maker from New York City: Ibid., 6.
50 Great Revolt of 1910: Tyler, Look for the Union Label, 63.
50 On a May afternoon . . . beating women up: Nevins and Hill, Ford, vol. 3, 139-41.
50 It would take . . . United Auto Workers: Nevins and Hill, Ford, vol. 3.
50 National Labor Relations Act: Russell A. Smith, “Taft-Hartley Act.”
51 Taft-Hartley Act . . . closed shops: Ibid.
51 right-to-work states: Vedder, “Right-to-Work Laws,” 172.
51 One classic paper . . . anti-union side: Thomas J. Holmes, “Effect of State Policies on the Location of Manufacturing,” 693.
51 UAW whipsawed . . . began to decline: June Manning Thomas, “Planning and Industrial Decline.”
51 Boston’s maritime industries . . . steam-powered ships: Glaeser, “Reinventing Boston,” 131-32.
51 New York’s garment industry imploded: Glaeser and Kahn, “From John Lindsay.”
51 and the city lost . . . between 1967 and 1977: Author’s calculations using U.S. Census Bureau, County Business Patterns 1967 and 1977.
52 three years before John Lennon was born: BBC News, “Liverpool Hails Population Rise,” http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/england/merseyside/3644164.stm.
52 But since 1937... its population: McElroy, Key Statistic Bulletin.
52 containerization put thousands of stevedores out of work: Levinson, The Box.
52 In 1959, Franco belatedly empowered: “Spain,” Encyclopædia Britannica.
52 its GDP grew faster than that of any: Maddison, “Statistics on World Population.”
52 Low wages . . . competing with its industries: “Bilbao,” Encyclopædia Britannica.
52 Bilbao’s population fell: Instituto Nacional Estadistica (Spain), www.ine.es, De Facto Population Figures from 1900 Until 1991 and De Jure Population Figures from 1986 Until 1995.
54 New York’s murder rate . . . disturbing trend: Monkkonen, Homicides in New York City.
54 This is the site . . . Detroit was ablaze: Sugrue, Origins of the Urban Crisis, 259.
54 failed to control the thousands of rioters: Rucker and Upton, Race Riots, vol. 1, 167.
54 The riot didn’t end until after Tuesday: Thompson, Whose Detroit?
54 By the time . . . seven thousand arrests: Rucker and Upton, Race Riots, vol. 1, 165.
55 riots were most common . . . had smaller riots: DiPasquale and Glaeser, “Los Angeles Riot,” 56.
55 “repression works”: Charles Tilly, Louise Tilly, and Richard Tilly, The Rebellious Century.
56 In 1977, workers in . . . in Manhattan: Using County Business Patterns for 1977, we extracted data for Wayne County, Michigan, and New York County (Manhattan), New York. For Wayne County, total wages paid were $12,231,051,000 and total employees were 797,342, for an average yearly wage of $15,340. For Manhattan County, total wages paid were $26,342,663,000 and total employees were 1,765,942, for an average yearly wage of $14,917, about 3 percent less than the wage in Wayne County. U.S. Census Bureau, 1986-04-28, County Business Patterns, 1977: U.S. Summary, State, and County Data, http://hdl.handle.net/1902.2/8464, Inter-university Consortium for Political and Social Research, version 1.
56 In 1975, New York State . . . nation’s highest taxes: Cannato, Ungovernable City.
56 Hipper urbanists look to Andy Warhol and the arts: Currid, Warhol Economy.
56 In 2008, more than $78.6 billion: U.S. Census Bureau, County Business Patterns 2008, www.census.gov/econ/cbp.
56 Benjamin Chinitz . . . kids to take risks: Chinitz, “Contrasts in Agglomeration,” 281, 284-85.
56 Certainly, financial billionaire . . . someone else: Langley, Tearing Down the Walls, 8.
56 The growth of finance . . . leveraged buyouts: Bernstein, Against the Gods, 300-302.
57 RJR/Nabisco: Burrough and Helyar, Barbarians at the Gate, 5.
57 In the 1970s, Bloomberg . . . with him to City Hall: Bloomberg and Winkler, Bloomberg.
58 In metropolitan areas . . . how big the cities are: Glaeser et al., “Clusters of Entrepreneurship.”
58 Coleman Young’s family had moved: Young and Wheeler, Hard Stuff, 16.
58 He got a job working for Henry Ford: Ibid., 40-41.
58 but was ultimately blacklisted . . . civil rights issues: Coleman A. Young Foundation, biography, www.cayf.org/about_person.php.
59 In World War II . . . had been outside Detroit: Young and Wheeler, Hard Stuff, 59.
59 seventeen blacks and no whites: Ibid., 84-85.
59 The federal government . . . Fort Knox: Ibid., 65-78.
59 founded the National Negro Labor Council: Ibid., 113.
59 whose radicalism . . . “stool pigeon”: “Coleman A. Young, 79, Mayor of Detroit and Political Symbol for Blacks, Is Dead,” New York Times, Nov. 30, 1997.
59 Finally, in 1963 ... state senate: Young and Wheeler, Hard Stuff, 165.
59 Three years later, he became the senate minority leader: Ibid., 169.
59 He pushed through open-housing laws: Ibid., 166.
59 Detroit’s first income tax: Rich, Coleman Young, 86.
59 Research by four economists ... higher tax rates: Haughwout, et al., “Local Revenue Hills: Evidence from Four U.S. Cities.”
60 in 1973 ... elected mayor: Ibid., 105.
60 win his next four mayoral elections easily: Ibid., 112, 115, and 118 cover the 1977, 1981, and 1985 elections; Steven A. Holmes, “The 1989 Elections.”
60 was 11.1 percent white in 2008: U.S. Census Bureau, American Community Survey, 2008 Data Profile for Detroit, generated using American FactFinder; and Gibson and Jung, “Historical Census Statistics on Population Totals by Race,” Working Paper No. 76, detailed tables, Michigan.
60 “properly used curse words”: Young, Quotations of Mayor Coleman A. Young, 6.
60 “The victim of racism”: Ibid., 1-2.
60 “hit the eight-mile road”: Ibid., 35.
60 the Curley Effect: Glaeser and Shleifer, “Curley Effect,” 2.
60 Curley cast himself ... right old wrongs: Beatty, Rascal King, 3.
61 calling Anglo-Saxons “a strange and stupid race”: Ibid., 170.
61 He was elected mayor ... term as governor: Ibid., 3.
61 Curley spent two terms in jail: Ibid., 443, 465, 473, 481.
61 “Take every damn one of them”: Ibid., 5.
61 Vespasian ... the Colosseum: Levick, Vespasian, 127-28 (Colosseum), 129 (building in general).
61 Potemkin ... Catherine the Great: “Grigory Aleksandrovich Potemkin,” Encyclopædia Britannica, www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/472610/Grigory-Aleksandrovich-Potemkin-Prince-Tavrichesky-Imperial-Prince.
62 building the Joe Louis Arena: Ankeny and Snavely, “Renovate Joe or Build Rink?”
62 the People Mover: Wilkerson, “Detroit’s Monorail Opens.”
62 The three-mile system ... to operate: Henion, “People Mover Grows Up.”
62 tax breaks ... private rather than public folly: Nicholson and Jones, “Detroit’s New Towers of Hope.”
62 Unfortunately... $100 million in 1996: Meredith, “G.M. Buys a Landmark.”
62 Poletown: Wylie, Poletown, ix, 52.
62 Activists protested ... the city limits: Wylie, Poletown.
62 The plant still functions ... within city borders: Whitford, “Factory Gets a Second Chance”; and Wylie, Poletown, ix.
63 Detroit’s per capita income was $14,976: U.S. Census Bureau; American Community Survey, 2008 D
ata Profile for City of Detroit and for the United States, generated using American FactFinder.
63 unemployment rate was 13.7 percent: Bureau of Labor Statistics, Local Area Unemployment Statistics, 2010, “Unemployment Rates for Metropolitan Areas,” www.bls.gov/web/metro/laummtrk.htm; “Unemployment Rates for the 50 Largest Cities, 2006,” www.bls.gov/lau/lacilg06.htm.
63 temperatures average 24.7 degrees: U.S. Census Bureau, County and City Data Book 2000, table C-7, “Cities—Government Finances and Climate,” www.census.gov/prod/2002pubs/00ccdb/cc00_tabC7.pdf.
63 why 777,000 people remain: U.S. Census Bureau, American Community Survey, 2008 Data Profile for City of Detroit, generated using American FactFinder.
63 Any area’s population ... disappear overnight: Glaeser et al., “Urban Growth and Housing Supply.”
64 far below the cost of new construction: U.S. Census Bureau, American Community Survey, 2008 Data Profile for City of Detroit, generated using American FactFinder; and Glaeser and Gyourko, “Urban Decline and Durable Housing.”
64 Spain has turned to transportation: Catan, “Spain’s Bullet Train.”
64 Liverpool had a flurry of new construction: “Liverpool, Capital Of Culture 2008: City on the up—It’s All in the Facades,” Guardian Magazine (London), Jan. 5, 2008.
64 The high-speed ... the rail connection: Catan, “Spain’s Bullet Train.”
65 Research has found ... just one job: Busso and Kline, “Do Local Economic Development Programs Work?”
65 from 1.4 million visitors in 1994 to 3.8 million in 2005: Plöger, “Bilbao City Report,” 30.
65 attracts a million visitors: “Guggenheim Bilbao Receives 5% Fewer Visits,” El Mundo, www.elmundo.es/elmundo/2009/01/12/cultura/1231778022.html.
66 nine hundred new jobs: Plaza, “Guggenheim Museum Bilbao,” 459.
66 cost the Basque treasury $240 million: Ibid., 461.
66 the National Centre ... closed the same year: “Debts Rock Pop Museum,” BBC News, Oct. 18, 1999, http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/entertainment/478616.stm.
66 a total of 62,500 units: Plöger, “Leipzig City Report.” 66 lost more than half of its 1970 population: U.S. Census Bureau, American Community Survey, 2008 Data Profile for City of Youngstown, generated using American FactFinder; and Gibson, “Population of the 100 Largest Cities.”
66 Many of these homes are being destroyed: City of Youngstown, Ohio, Youngstown 2010: The Plan, www.cityofyoungstownoh.com/about_youngstown/youngstown_2010/plan/plan.aspx.
66 more reasonable use of space: Saulney, “Detroit Is Razing Itself”; Davey, “Detroit Mayor’s Tough Love.”
CHAPTER 3: WHAT’S GOOD ABOUT SLUMS?
69 Plato noted ... “the other of the rich”: Plato, Republic, 111.
70 is 17.7 percent within cities and 9.8: DeNavas-Walt et al., “People and Families in Poverty,” 14.
70 The poverty rate among ... long-term residents: Glaeser et al., “Why Do the Poor Live in Cities?” 4.
71 When American cities ... near those stops: Ibid., 16.
72 In the 1870s and 1880s ... still legal: Burns, History of Brazil, 126, 177; Levine, History of Brazil, 77.
72 By the middle ... were slaves: Hugh Thomas, Slave Trade, 742.
72 Runaway slaves ... ancestors of favelas: Burns, History of Brazil, 46.
72 Emperor Pedro II . . . rest of the country: Barman, Roderick J. Citizen Emperor: Pedro II and the Making of Brazil, 233.
72 Finally, in 1888 ... emancipation proclamation: Chasteen, Born in Blood and Fire, 173.
72 making it the last country in the Americas to end slavery: Ibid.
72 In the next year ... Braganza dynasty: Ibid., 173-74.
73 The first true favela ... a tax rebellion: Burns, History of Brazil, 248-50.
73 Canudos had grown ... whiskey rebellion: Levine, Vale of Tears, 16.
73 In 1896 ... take the town: Burns, History of Brazil, 251-52.
73 about fifteen thousand people were killed: Levine, Vale of Tears, 185.
73 While the Brazilian army won ... came to Rio: O’Hare and Barke, “Favelas of Rio,” 232.
73 One recent study reported ... above that poverty line: Ferreira et al., “Robust Poverty Profile for Brazil,” 83.
73 the extreme-poverty rate in rural Nigeria: Canagarajan et al., “Evolution of Poverty and Welfare in Nigeria,” 18.
73 About three quarters ... less than 30 percent: World Bank, “Nigeria,” 12.
74 Kolkata is also . . . 24 percent: India, Planning Commission of, “Poverty Estimates for 2004-05,” 5.
74 In recent years ... less than 1 percent: “Bengal Leads Hunger List.”
74 went for centuries without ... human capital: In 1999, average total schooling for Brazilians twenty-five years and older was 4.6 years. For comparison, the United States averaged 12.24 years, most of Western Europe averaged above 8, and many other South American countries ranked higher. For example, Argentina averaged 8.487, and Chile averaged 7.89. Barro and Lee, “Educational Attainment.”
74 Leila Velez ... customers as employees: Gergen and Vanourek, Life Entrepreneurs, 85-86.
74 $30 million a year of beauty products: McConnell, “Next Silicon Valley.”
75 Madam C. J. Walker... of her time: Bundles, On Her Own Ground, 88, 277.
75 suffer from poor soil quality: Hartemink, “Soil Map Density and a Nation’s Wealth and Income,” 53-54; and Sachs, “Breaking the Poverty Trap.”
76 Rio was the nation’s capital until 1960: “Rio de Janeiro,” Encyclopædia Britannica.
76 campaign to make Rio’s favelas healthier: Meade, “‘Civilizing Rio,’” 301.
76 The “City of God” . . . for favela dwellers: Portes, “Housing Policy,” 5-6 (Cidade de Deus on p. 8).
76 The ironic result... to the favelas: Meade, “‘Civilizing Rio,’” 304.
76 Irish immigrants who fled starvation ... sought-after neighborhood: Berger, “Hell’s Kitchen.”
76 Upper East Side ... nineteenth century: Plunz, History of Housing in New York City, 54-56.
76 The Upper East Side Armory ... unruly immigrants: Burrows and Wallace, Gotham, 1037-38.
77 New York actually received ... from Eastern Europe: Glaeser, “Reinventing Boston,” 131-32.
77 Boston received ... through New York: Ibid.
77 Patrick Kennedy ... hit the Kennedys’ meager farm hard: Maier, The Kennedys, 18-23, 334-39.
77 a cooper in East Boston: Ibid., 32.
78 buy a saloon: Koskoff, Joseph P. Kennedy, 6.
78 He was first elected ... “Honey Fitz”: Ibid., 7, 17.
78 Joe Kennedy started out ... substantial holdings: Derbyshire, Six Tycoons, 207.
78 made a fortune on Wall Street: Ibid., 209.
78 as of 2008, 36 percent of New Yorkers are foreign-born: American Community Survey, 2008 Data Profile for the United States, generated using American FactFinder.
78 foreign-born music directors: New York Philharmonic, List of Directors, http://nyphil.org/about/musicDirectors.cfm.
79 Robert Cain ... House of Lords: Routledge, Cains.
79 Carlos Slim ... dry goods store: Mehta, “Carlos Slim”; Carlos Slim Helú, biography of, www.carlosslim.com/biografia_ing.html.
79 “in a regime of ignorance”: Stigler, Organization of Industry, 206.
80 The great African-American writer... economic opportunity: Rowley, Richard Wright, 4 (birth), 40 (final move to Memphis—he had lived there briefly earlier), 48-49 (move to Chicago).
80 “I headed north ... beneath the stars”: Wright, Black Boy, 285.
80 In Chicago ... to do some writing: Rowley, Richard Wright, 55-60.
80 Even more important ... “help you to write”: Wright, “I Tried to Be a Communist.”
80 Wright was laid off... Louis Wirth: Rowley, Richard Wright, 62-68.
80 She also got him work ... Works Progress Administration: Ibid., 108-9.
81 e moved to New York ... big-city living: Ibid., 124 (move), 144 (Panorama).
81 In 1938 ... Harper and Company: Ibid., 138.
81 Guggenheim Fellowship to write Native Son: Ibid., 164.
81 A Southern sharecropper ... $445 a year: Braunhut, “Farm Labor Wage Rates in the South,” 193.
81 A black worker ... $5 a day: Raff and Summers, “Did Henry Ford Pay Efficiency Wages?” S59.
81 Only 2 percent of New York’s ... in 1900: Gibson and Jung, “Historical Census Statistics on Population Totals by Race,” Working Paper No. 76, detailed tables, Illinois and New York.
82 McMechen ... “the best friends that the colored people have”: “Baltimore Tries Drastic Plan.” Information that he went to Morgan College and Yale is from Morgan State University’s official Web site, www.morgan.edu/About_MSU/University_History.html .
82 Similar measures ... Southern cities: C. Johnson quoted in Power, “Apartheid Baltimore Style,” 289.
82 “unconstitutional, unjust”: “Baltimore Tries Drastic Plan.”
82 Hawkins took Baltimore ... in state court: Power, “Apartheid Baltimore Style,” 305-6 (first case), 311 (second case background), 314 (second case decision).
83 greatest courtroom victory for black America up to that time: Power, “Apartheid Baltimore Style,” 312-14; and Buchanan v. Warley, 245 US 60, Supreme Court 1917.
83 terrorized blacks who ventured into white areas: Godshalk, Veiled Visions; and “Race Riots,” Encylopedia of Chicago, http://encyclopedia.chicagohistory.org/pages/1032.html.
83 Restrictive covenants ... the world wars: Stephen Grant Meyer, As Long as They Don’t Move Next Door, 10.
83 Almost forty years ago ... housing in St. Louis: Kain and Quigley, “Housing Market Discrimination,” 272-73.
83 African-American “residents ... on the Lakeside drive”: Groner and Helfeld, “Race Discrimination in Housing,” 432.
83 Throughout the country ... were more segregated: Cutler et al., “Rise and Decline of the American Ghetto,” 482.
83 Two Baltimore attorneys ... restrictive covenants: Ware, “Invisible Walls,” 759 (Perlman), 765 (Marshall).
83 Swayed by their arguments ... ending their usefulness: Ibid., 770-71.
83 Ten years later... New York’s lead: Collins, “Political Economy of State Fair-Housing Laws,” 3-4.
83 Between 1970 and 2000 ... well-off African Americans: Cutler et al., “Rise and Decline of the American Ghetto,” 496 and passim.
Triumph of the City Page 36