84 Between 1970 and 1990 ... less than 10 percent: Ibid., 467.
84 The nature of segregation ... half a century ago: Ibid., 457-58.
84 By 1990 ... out of work: Cutler and Glaeser, “Are Ghettos Good or Bad?”
84 Young black women ... single mothers in more segregated cities: Ibid.
84 William Julius Wilson argued that ... communities became rudderless: Wilson, Declining Significance of Race.
85 a single transportation mode ... horrendous commutes: Glaeser et al., “Why Do the Poor Live in Cities?”
85 The U.S. poverty line: “The 2009 HHS Poverty Guidelines,” U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Assistant Secretary for Planning and Evaluation, http://aspe.hhs.gov/poverty/09poverty.shtml.
85 $9,000 on car-related transportation: Bureau of Labor Statistics, Consumer Expenditure Survey, 2008, www.bls.gov/cex, table 2400: “Population Size of Area of Residence: Average Annual Expenditures and Characteristics.”
87 alternative view ... suffering of segregation: Kain and Persky, “Alternatives to the Gilded Ghetto.”
87 Moving to Opportunity: Kling et al., “Experimental Analysis of Neighborhood Effects,” 84.
87 The results were strikingly mixed: Ibid., 103-5.
87 For almost forty years ... outcomes and reducing crime: Harlem Children’s Zone, “History,” www.hcz.org/about-us/history.
88 In 2004, as New York began ... in its first year: Dobbie and Fryer, “High Quality Schools,” 6-7.
88 Entrance into the school is determined by lottery: Ibid., 3.
88 Roland Fryer ... gap in mathematics: Ibid., 15-16.
88 particular success with boys: Ibid., 51.
88 “when I’m President”: Obama, “Changing the Odds.”
89 In 1989, the ... than in Missouri: According to a publication by the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, annual AFDC benefit levels for a mother and two children with no earnings was $5,209 in Illinois, 20 percent higher than the $4,341 aid in Missouri. “Eligibility, Benefits and Disposable Income,” Aid to Families with Dependent Children: The Baseline, Human Services Policy, Office of the Assistant Secretary for Planning & Evaluation, June 1998, p. 91, http://aspe.hhs.gov/hsp/afdc/afdcbase98.htm.
89 If you were out of work ... any other declining Rust Belt city: U.S. Census Bureau, Census 1990, Summary Tape File 3, Sample data, Detailed Tables, generated using American FactFinder.
89 Since welfare reform in 1996 ... narrowed considerably: U.S. Census Bureau, American Community Survey, 2006-2008 Data Profile for City of St. Louis and City of East St. Louis, generated using American FactFinder.
89 prosperous Parisian parents ... Louis le Grand: Lycée Henri-IV, http://lyc-henri4.scola.ac-paris.fr/index.html, and Lycée Louis le Grand, www.louis-le-grand.org/albedo/index.php.
89 the 1964 Civil Rights Act ... opportunity for African Americans: Pride, “End of Busing,” 207-8.
89 Enemies of busing ... travel long distances: Gary Orfield, Must We Bus? Segregated Schools and National Policy (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution, 1978), 117.
89 Milliken v. Bradley: Amaker, “Milliken v. Bradley,” 349.
CHAPTER 4: HOW WERE THE TENEMENTS TAMED?
93 The Dharavi neighborhood . . . on around 530 acres: Saunders, “Slumming It Is Better.”
93 a thousand inhabitants for every working toilet: Watkins, “Beyond Scarcity,” 37.
93 tuberculosis . . . seven years lower: Mumbai, Mumbai Human Development Report 2009.
94 Dharavi is pretty safe: Patel, “Dharavi,” 47.
95 “works unmitigated mischief”: Theodore Roosevelt, Rough Riders, 2004, p. 426.
96 Kinshasa had bad beginnings: “Kinshasa: History,” Encyclopædia Britannica.
96 mass killings as a management tool: “Congo Free State,” Encyclopædia Britannica.
96 government improved ... corruption continued unabated: Edgerton, Troubled Heart of Africa; and Gondola, The History of Congo.
96 from 446,000 to 10.4 million people: According to the World Bank, the 1960 population of Kinshasa (then Léopoldville) was 446,013. In 2007, population in the urban agglomeration was 10,449,998. World Bank, World Development Indicators, Population in the Largest City.
96 more than 30 percent larger than capital cities in stable democracies: Ades and Glaeser, “Trade and Circuses.”
96 study of corruption in Indonesia: Fisman, “Estimating the Value of Political Connections.”
96 one third of children ... are infected with the malaria parasite: Kazadi et al., “Malaria in Primary School Children and Infants in Kinshasa.”
96 typhoid fever outbreak in 2004-2005: World Health Organization, “Typhoid Fever.”
97 earliest HIV-positive blood samples: Moore, “Puzzling Origins of AIDS.”
97 found that 5 percent of the population was infected: Quinn et al., “AIDS in Africa.”
97 one of the world’s ten most dangerous cities ... “criminal activity:” CNN, www.cnn.com/2010/WORLD/americas/04/10/dangerous.cities.world/index.html; U.S. Department of State, http://travel.state.gov/travel/cis_pa_tw/cis/cis_1104.html.
97 to the relative safety of Congo’s capital: “Kinshasa: History,” Encyclopædia Britannica.
97 Seventy-three out of every thousand children: Congo, Enquête Démographique, p. 189, table 12.2, “Taux de mortalité des enfants selon certaines caractéristiques sociodémographiques.”
97 ten times the U.S. average ... rural Congo: Ibid.; and Xu et al., “Deaths: Final Data for 2007.”
97 more than 10 percent of the children ... exceed 30 percent: Tollens, “Food Security.”
97 thirty minutes for potable water: Congo, Enquête Démographique, p. 20, table 2.6, “Approvisionnement en eau potable.”
97 Plague came to Athens: Durack et al., “Hellenic Holocaust.”
97 Plague came to Constantinople: Russell, “That Earlier Plague.”
97 three centuries after 1350: McNeill, Plagues and Peoples, 160-72.
97 death rates were much higher in urban areas: Wrigley and Schofield, Population History, 472.
98 Plague vanished from Europe: McNeill, Plagues and Peoples, 171-72.
98 yellow fever invaded, and cholera: Ibid., 271-75, 280.
98 Nine years later, Snow walked: Steven Johnson, Ghost Map, 60.
98 map of the cholera outbreak: Ibid., 172-73.
98 a particular water pump: Ibid., 193.
98 “the above-mentioned pump well”: Brody et al., “Map-Making,” 65.
99 Philadelphia ... went the public route: Warner, Private City, 103.
99 New York followed a private path: Reubens, “Burr, Hamilton,” 592.
99 cautioned against the “burthensome” taxes: Reubens, “Burr, Hamilton.”
99 The charter’s key provisions: Ibid., 599.
99 “monied transactions not inconsistent”: Ibid., 600.
100 lose more than a half percent: New York City Department of Health and Mental Hygiene, Summary of Vital Statistics 2008, Jan. 2010, cover.
100 Croton Aqueduct ... had an impact: Jervis, Description of the Croton Aqueduct.
100 remarkable sixty-year decline: In 1832, New York City had 50 deaths per 1,000, a rate of 5 percent. New York City Department of Health and Mental Hygiene, Summary of Vital Statistics 2008, Jan. 2010, cover.
100 almost 1,700 public water systems: Cutler and Miller, “Water, Water Everywhere,” p. 169, table 5.1.
100 municipalities were spending as much on water: Ibid., 183-86.
100 Economic historian Werner Troesken: For instance, Troesken, “Typhoid Rates.”
101 larger reductions in other diseases: Ferrie and Troesken, “Water and Chicago’s Mortality Transition.”
101 “introduction of pure water”: Ibid.
101 seven years lower in New York: New York City Department of Health and Mental Hygiene, Summary of Vital Statistics 2008 and 1961, table 6; and Arias, “United States Life Tables, 2006,” table 12.
102 “I
bought real estate in Japan”: “‘Czar Of Tenderloin’ Left Only $14 Estate: Tax Appraiser Finds Inspector Williams’s Property Almost Balanced by Debts,” New York Times, January 30, 1918, p. 18, ProQuest Historical Newspapers, Document ID: 102663258.
102 New York’s 1894 election: “Will Be Mayor Three Years: Lawyers Say Mr. Strong’s Term Is Not Abridged,” New York Times, Nov. 11, 1894, p. 9, ProQuest Historical Newspapers, Document ID: 106840521.
102 “a far better man for his purpose”: Theodore Roosevelt, Rough Riders, 423.
102 Waring had gotten his start in ... street cleaning: “No Platt Republicans: Mayor-Elect Strong Overlooks the Boss in Six Appointments; Col. Waring to Clean the Streets,” New York Times, Dec. 30, 1894, p. 8, ProQuest Historical Newspapers, Document ID: 109722641 (accessed Aug. 18, 2010).
102 became a lightning rod: “To Keep Streets Clean: Col. Waring Allowed over $3,000,000 for His Department; Discussion over ‘Final Disposition’; Bill Favored for Grading Salaries,” New York Times, Dec. 28, 1895, p. 9, ProQuest Historical Newspapers, Document ID: 103379346.
102 “a dammed lot of drunken bums”: “Reproved by the Assembly: The Lower House of the Legislature Stands by the Grand Army, New York Times, Apr. 23, 1895, p. 2, ProQuest Historical Newspapers, Document ID: 103365239.
102 Waring ... called for his removal: “Attack on Col. Waring: Gen. Viele Charges Him with Crimes Nearly Forty Years Old; Revenge, the Commissioner Says,” New York Times, Apr. 21, 1895, p. 9, ProQuest Historical Newspapers, Document ID: 103493165.
102 He insisted on seizing vehicles left idle: “A Battle for Col. Waring’s Men: Seizing Trucks in Mott Street Last Night They Were Attacked by a Mob of Owners and Italians,” New York Times, June 2, 1895, p. 1, ProQuest Historical Newspapers, Document ID: 102460052.
102 “marvels have been done toward the sanitation of the city”: “Clean Streets at Last: Fruitless Search for Derelict Wagons and Stray Bits of Paper; a Drive with Colonel Waring,” New York Times, July 28, 1895.
102 a new technology—asphalt: “The Life of a Pavement: Results of Many Costly Experiments in New York,” New York Times, Feb. 8, 1883.
103 paved with oblong granite blocks: Ibid.
103 New York’s male life expectancy: New York City Department of Health and Mental Hygiene, Summary of Vital Statistics 2008 and 1961, table 6; and Arias, “United States Life Tables, 2006,” table 12.
103 replaced by a Tammany man ... ice monopoly: “Robert A. Van Wyck Dies in Paris Home: First Mayor of Greater New York Had Lived Abroad for 12 Years; He Was Croker’s ‘Choice,’ His Administration Marked by So-Called Ice Trust, Ramapo Water Steal, and Police Scandals,” New York Times, Nov. 16, 1918, p. 13, ProQuest Historical Newspapers, Document ID: 97044205.
103 corruption decreases as education levels rise: Glaeser and Saks, “Corruption In America.”
103 The old model of machine politics ... became the age of the bureaucrat: Wallis et al., “Politics, Relief, and Reform.”
104 vehicle miles traveled increases: Duranton and Turner, “Fundamental Law of Road Congestion.”
104 The best way to reduce traffic congestion: Columbia University, “Practical Economic Solutions.”
105 “users of private cars ... their use imposes”: Vickrey, “New York’s Subway Fare Structure.”
105 congestion pricing ... traffic-jam free: Goh, “Congestion Management.”
105 London adopted its own congestion charge: Leape, “London Congestion Charge.”
106 first modern police force: Schivelbusch, “Policing of Street Lighting.”
106 filled with violent disorder: In 1650, Paris was the fourth-largest city in the world and the largest in Europe. Chandler, Four Thousand Years of Urban Growth, 534.
106 vast street-lighting project: Schivelbusch, “Policing of Street Lighting.”
106 “where the money is”: Federal Bureau of Investigation, Famous Cases, “Willie Sutton.”
106 more than 20 percent of people ... people were victims: Glaeser, “Are Cities Dying?” and Glaeser and Sacerdote, “Why Is There More Crime in Cities?”
106 In 1986, murder rates: Glaeser and Sacerdote, “Why Is There More Crime in Cities?”
107 financial returns to an average crime: Ibid.
107 overall crime rate in Mumbai: India, Government of, National Crime Records Bureau, Crime in India 2008, ch. 2, “Crime in Megacities,” 44, 48.
107 two hundred years of murders in New York: Author’s calculation using Monkkonen, Homicides in New York City.
107 Murder fell from 1800 to 1830: Ibid.
107 between three and six murders per hundred thousand: Ibid.
108 a weak link between corruption and homicide: Ibid., using personal judgment regarding the definition of a Tammany mayor.
108 peaked during the Roaring Twenties: Monkkonen, Homicides in New York City.
108 national homicide rate fell by about 29 percent: Ibid.
108 cities became more lawless than ever: Ibid.
108 One might guess ... one fifth of the rise in crime: Levitt, “Changing Age Structure.”
108 The Crips: Estimates are 30,000 to 35,000. U.S. Department of Justice, National Gang Intelligence Center, National Gang Threat Assessment, Jan. 2009, p. 25, www.justice.gov/ndic/pubs32/32146/32146p.pdf.
109 New York was about as healthy as the rest: New York City Department of Health and Mental Hygiene, Summary of Vital Statistics 2008 and 1961, table 6; and Arias, “United States Life Tables, 2006,” table 12.
109 a 2.7-year gap opened up: Ibid.
109 This gap didn’t appear for women: Ibid.
109 “wond’rous toy”: Hyland, Richard Rogers, 32.
109 legalization of abortion played some role: Donohue and Levitt, “Impact of Legalized Abortion on Crime.”
109 economics of crime and punishment: Becker, “Crime and Punishment.”
109 makes sense of recidivism rates: Needels, “Go Directly to Jail and Do Not Collect?”
110 about 50 percent of murders lead to a conviction: Glaeser and Sacerdote, “Why Is There More Crime in Cities?”
110 In Bogotá and Rio, fewer than 10 percent: Ungar, “Prisons and Politics,” 920.
110 Kerner Commission recommended: National Advisory Commission on Civil Disorders, Report of the, 11.
110 the Rockefeller Drug Laws: Farrell, “D.A.’s Assail Rockefeller Drug Penalties.”
111 number of inmates in the U.S. criminal system: U.S. Bureau of Justice Statistics, “U.S. Correctional Population Reaches 6.6 Million,” Aug. 25, 2002, http://bjs.ojp.usdoj.gov/content/pub/press/ppus01pr.cfm; and Cahalan, “Historical Corrections Statistics,” tables 4-1 and 7-9A.
111 sentence lengths double, crime rates decline: Spelman, Criminal Incapacitation; Donohue, “Fighting Crime,” 48; and Levitt, “Prison Population Size.”
111 the incapacitation effect of jails: Levitt, “Prison Population Size.”
111 number of police ... nationwide: Levitt, “Understanding Why Crime Fell.”
111 Steven Levitt estimates: Ibid.
112 Jack Maple, who marked a map: Maple said he used crayons to mark the crimes; in Dussault, “Jack Maple.”
112 subway robberies dropped dramatically: Interview with Maple; and Dussault, “Jack Maple.”
112 CompStat: Dussault, “Jack Maple.”
113 the Ten Point Coalition: Berrien and Winship, “Lessons Learned,” 25
113 a number of community policing initiatives: Gelzinis, “Commissioner Connecting.”
113 Neither CompStat nor community policing: http://www.nyc.gov/html/doh/downloads/pdf/vs/wtc-deaths.pdf.
113 Across countries, historically, terrorism does not deter: Glaeser and Shapiro, “Cities and Warfare.”
114 expect to live one-and-a-half years longer: New York City Department of Health and Mental Hygiene, Summary of Vital Statistics 2008, table 6; and Xu et al., “Deaths: Final Data for 2007.”
114 death rates lower than the national average: Age-adjusted death rate for
the United States is 760.3 per 100,000 people: Xu et al., “Deaths: Final Data for 2007.” Los Angeles—age-adjusted rate 624.4: California Department of Public Health, Los Angeles County’s Health Status Profile for 2010. Boston—age-adjusted rate 729.1: Massachusetts Department of Public Health, Bureau of Health Information, Statistics, Research, and Evaluation, “Massachusetts Deaths 2007,” Apr. 2009, www.mass.gov/Eeohhs2/docs/dph/research_epi/death_report_07.pdf. Minneapolis—age-adjusted rate 701.1: Minnesota Department of Health, Health Statistics Portal, https://pqc.health.state.mn.us/mhsq/frontPage.jsp. San Francisco—age-adjusted rate 601.2: California Department of Public Health, San Francisco County’s Health Status Profile for 2010.
114 average life expectancy in counties with more ... than that density: Author’s calculations, using data from Murray et al., “Eight Americas,” Dataset S1, and county density data from Haines, “Historical, Demographic, Economic, and Social Data: The United States, 1790-2002.”
114 death rate for Manhattanites: New York City Department of Health and Mental Hygiene, Overall Mortality, 2007, by age group and borough, generated using New York City Vital Statistics Query, https://a816-healthpsi.nyc.gov/epiquery/EpiQuery/VS/index.html (July 28, 2010); and Xu et al., “Deaths: Final Data for 2007.”
114 Accidents and suicides ... rarer in big cities: National Center for Injury Prevention and Control, “10 Leading Causes of Death, United States,” 2007, All Races, Both Sexes, data generated using WISQARS, http://webappa.cdc.gov/sasweb/ncipc/leadcaus10.html; and Xu et al., “Deaths: Final Data for 2007.”
114 than 75 percent less likely to die in a motor vehicle: New York City Department of Health and Mental Hygiene, Summary of Vital Statistics 2007, tables 2 and 14; and Xu et al., “Deaths: Final Data for 2007.”
115 The suicide rate ... more common in rural areas: New York City Department of Health and Mental Hygiene, Summary of Vital Statistics 2007, tables 2 and 15; Xu et al., “Deaths: Final Data for 2007,” table 11; and Cutler et al., “Explaining the Rise in Youth Suicide.”
115 death rates from suicide: As of 2007, Alaska’s rate is 22.09 deaths from suicide per 100,000 people; Montana’s, 19.42; and Wyoming’s, 19.73. Massachusetts’s rate is 7.62; New Jersey’s, 6.69; and New York’s 6.9. National Center for Injury Prevention and Control, WISQARS Injury Mortality Reports, 1999-2007, All Races, Both Sexes, data generated using WISQARS, http://webappa.cdc.gov/sasweb/ncipc/mortrate10_sy.html.
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