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by Alberto A. Martinez


  6. Daniel Kevles, In the Name of Eugenics, with a new introduction (1985; Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1995), 4.

  7. Ruth Schwartz Cowan, “Francis Galton's Statistical Ideas: The Influence of Eugenics,” Isis 63, no. 4 (December 1972): 509–28.

  8. Francis Galton, Inquiries into Human Faculty and Its Development (London: Macmillan and Co., 1883), 24–25.

  9. Karl Pearson, “Discussion,” American Journal of Sociology 10, no. 1 (July 1904): 7.

  10. The phrase “We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal,” was paraphrased by Thomas Jefferson from his friend, Philip Mazzei, an Italian-born patriot and pamphleteer, and edited by Benjamin Franklin.

  11. R. C. Olby, “Mendel no Mendelian?” History of Science 17 (1979): 53–57. See also Allan Franklin, A. W. F. Edwards, Daniel J. Fairbanks, Daniel L. Hartl, Teddy Seidenfeld, Ending the Mendel-Fisher Controversy (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 2008).

  12. Charles B. Davenport, “Crime, Heredity and Environment,” Journal of Heredity 19, no. 7 (July 1928): 307–13.

  13. Garland Allen, “The Biological Basis of Crime: An Historical and Methodological Study,” Historical Studies in the Physical Sciences 31, pt. 2 (2001): 183–222.

  14. John Franklin Bobbitt, “Practical Eugenics,” Pedagogical Seminary 16 (September 1909): 388.

  15. Charles B. Davenport, “Marriage Laws and Customs,” in Problems in Eugenics: Papers Communicated to the First International Eugenics Congress (London: C. Knight & Co., 1912), 154.

  16. Kevles, In the Name, 93.

  17. Lewis Terman, The Measurement of Intelligence (New York: Arno Press, 1916), 91–92.

  18. As defined by Lewis Terman, the intelligence quotient (IQ) was the numerical result of taking an individual's test result (the “mental age”) divided by the person's chronological age (in years) multiplied by one hundred.

  19. Alfred P. Schultz, Race or Mongrel (Boston: L. C. Page and Co., 1908), 259.

  20. Henry Fairfield Osborn, “Address of Welcome,” in Eugenics, Genetics and the Family: Scientific Papers of the Second International Congress of Eugenics, vol. 1 (Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins Co., 1923), 2. The congress was held at the American Museum of Natural History, New York, September 22–28, 1921.

  21. Calvin Coolidge, “Whose Country Is This?” Good Housekeeping 72, no. 2 (February 1921): 13–14, 109. Writers often misquote this passage.

  22. The Immigration Restriction Act of 1924 continued in effect until 1965.

  23. Dolan DNA Learning Center, “Image Archive on the American Eugenics Movement,” Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, www.eugenicsarchive.org/eugenics/, accessed 1 June 2008.

  24. Leta Hollingworth, Gifted Children: Their Nature and Nurture (New York: Macmillan, 1926), 69–75, 198, 199.

  25. Harry Laughlin, “Family History,” in The Legal Status of Eugenical Sterilization: History and Analysis of Litigation under the Virginia Sterilization Statute, which Led to a Decision of the Supreme Court of the United States upholding the Statute (Chicago: Fred J. Ringley Co., 1930), 17.

  26. Robert J. Cynkar, “Buck v. Bell: ‘Felt Necessities v. Fundamental Values?,’” Columbia Law Review 81 (November 1981): 1435–53.

  27. Hamilton Cravens, The Triumph of Evolution: American Scientists and the Heredity-Environment Controversy, 1900–1941 (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1978), 53.

  28. It took decades for some of the sterilization laws to be repealed. The Virginia law of 1924, for example, was in effect until 1979, such that more than seven thousand individuals were sterilized.

  29. Reginald C. Punnet, “Eliminating Feeblemindedness,” Journal of Heredity 8 (1917): 464–65.

  30. Albert Einstein to Heinrich Zangger, 16 February 1917, The Collected Papers of Albert Einstein, vol. 10, The Berlin Years: Correspondence, May-December 1920, and Supplementary Correspondence, 1909–1920, ed. Diana Kormos Buchwald, Tilman Sauer, Ze'ev Rosenkranz, József Illy, Virginia Iris Holmes (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2006), 43.

  31. Einstein to Besso, 21 October 1932, in Albert Einstein and Michele Besso, Correspondence 1903–1955, German transcriptions with French translations, notes, and introduction by Pierre Speziali (Paris: Hermann, 1972), 290.

  32. Einstein to Zangger, 16 February 1917, Collected Papers, vol. 10, p. 43.

  33. Adolf Hitler, Mein Kampf [1925–27], English translation, 3rd ed. (New York: Reynal and Hitchcock, 1941), 649, 640, 660.

  34. Ibid., 609, 601, 608.

  35. Adolf Hitler, Mein Kampf: Zwei Bände in einem Band Ungekürtze Ausgabe (1925; repr., Munich: Franz Eher Nacht, 1943), vol. 1, chap. 10, p. 282, trans. Martínez.

  36. Ibid., 636, 656–658, 594, italics original.

  37. “Eugenical Sterilization in Germany,” Eugenical News 18 (1933): 91–93; “Human Sterilization in Germany and the United States,” Journal of the American Medical Association 102, no. 18 (1934): 1501.

  38. Robert J. Lifton, The Nazi Doctors: Medical Killing and the Psychology of Genocide (New York: Basic Books, 1986), 31.

  39. Joseph DeJarnette, “Delegates Urge Wider Practice of Sterilization,” Richmond (Virginia) Times-Dispatch, 16 January 1934.

  40. Willi Heidinger, in Denkschrift zur Einweihung der neuen Arbeitsstätte der Deutschen Hollerith Maschinen Gesellschaft m.b.H in Berlin-Lichterfelde, 8 January 1934, 39–40, quoted in Edwin Black, War Against the Weak: Eugenics and America's Campaign to Create a Master Race (New York: Four Walls Eight Windows, 2003), 309.

  41. Johannes Stark, “The Pragmatic and the Dogmatic Spirit in Physics,” Nature 141, no. 3574 (30 April 1938): 770–72.

  42. W. A. Oldfather, “Pythagoras on Individual Differences and the Authoritarian Principle,” Classical Journal 33, no. 9 (June 1938): 537–39.

  43. Iamblichus, Pythagorean Way, chap. 31.

  44. Plato, The Republic of Plato [ca. 375 BCE], trans. Benjamin Jowett (London: Oxford University Press, 1881), bk. 3, p. 101, line 415.

  45. Anonymous [Benjamin Franklin], “Observations Concerning the Increase of Mankind” [1751], in Observations On the Late and Present Conduct of the French, with Regard to their Encroachments upon the British Colonies in North America…. To which is added, wrote by another Hand; Observations concerning the Increase of Mankind, Peopling of Countries, &c., ed. William Clarke (Boston: S. Kneeland, 1755), reprinted in Franklin, The Writings of Benjamin Franklin, vol. 3, ed. Albert Henry Smith (London: Macmillan and Co., 1905), 73.

  46. Steven Selden, Inheriting Shame: The Story of Eugenics in America (New York: Teachers College Press, 1999), 64.

  47. Francis Galton, “Eugenics: Its Definition, Scope, and Aims,” American Journal of Sociology 10, no.1 (July 1904): 6

  48. John Baker to Julian Huxley, 17 December 1960, quoted by Michael G. Kenny, “Racial Science in Social Context: John R. Baker on Eugenics, Race, and the Public Role of Scientist,” Isis 95 (2004): 409.

  49. “Report of the Ad Hoc Committee,” Genetics 83 (1976): 99–101, quoted in Kevles, In the Name, 283.

  50. Luigi Luca Cavalli-Sforza, Paolo Menozzi, and Alberto Piazza, The History and Geography of Human Genes (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1996), chap. 2.

  51. Albert Einstein to Eduard Einstein, 23 February 1927, Einstein Archives 75–654, translation from Jürgen Neffe, Einstein, A Biography, trans. Shelley Frisch (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2007), 193.

  52. Albert Einstein to Mileva Marić, 15 October 1926, Einstein Archives, item 75–658; Albert Einstein to Hans Albert Einstein, February 1927, and 7 September 1927, Einstein Archives, items 75–738, 75–657.

  53. Bernard D. Davis, “Pythagoras, Genetics, and Workers' Rights,” New York Times, 14 August 1980, A23; C. R. Scriver et al., “Glucose-6-Phosphate Dehydrogenase Deficiency,” in The Metabolic and Molecular Bases of Inherited Disease, 7th ed. (McGraw-Hill, 1995), 3367–98; A. Mehta, P. Mason, T. Vulliamy, “Glucose-6-Phosphate Dehydrogenase Deficiency,” Baillière's Best Practice & Research. Clinical Haematology
13, no. 1 (March 2000): 21–38.

  54. Lionel Penrose, “Human Chromosomes” [1959], quoted in Kevles, In the Name, 248.

  55. D. K. Belyaev, “Destabilizing Selection as a Factor in Domestication,” Journal of Heredity 70 (1979): 301–8.

  56. L. N. Trut, “Early Canid Domestication: The Farm Fox Experiment,” trans. Anna Fadeeva, American Scientist 87 (1999): 160–69; L. N. Trut, “Experimental Studies of Early Canid Domestication,” in The Genetics of the Dog, ed. Anatoly Ruvinsky, Jeff Sampson (Wallingford, UK: CABI, 2001), 15–43.

  57. Tecumseh Fitch, quoted in Nicolas Wade, “Nice Rats, Nasty Rats: Maybe It's All in the Genes,” New York Times, July 25, 2006.

  EPILOGUE

  1. Marx-Engels Institute, “Letter of Charles Darwin to Karl Marx [sic.],” Pod znamenem Marksizma (Moscow), nos. 1–2 (Jan.–Feb., 1931), 203–4; Ernst Kilman, “About the So-Called ‘Agnosticism’ of Darwin,” Pod znamenem Marksizma nos. 1–2 (1931), 205–6; V. Adoratsky, ed., “Biochronik,” in Karl Marks. Datyzhizni I deyatel'nosti (Moscow: Institut Marksa-Engelsa-Lenina, 1934), 366. For a detailed account of how these claims arose and propagated, see Ralph Colp Jr., “The Myth of the Darwin-Marx Letter,” History of Political Economy 14, no. 4 (1982): 461–82.

  2. For example, Isaiah Berlin, Karl Marx: His Life and His Environment (New York, 1959), 252.

  3. Erhard Lucas, “Marx' und Engels' Auseinandersetzung mit Darwin: zur Differenz zwischen Marx und Engels,” International Review of Social History 9 (1964): 468–69; Shlomo Avineri, “From Hoax to Dogma: A Footnote on Marx and Darwin,” Encounter (March 1967): 32; Ralph Colp Jr., “The Contacts between Karl Marx and Charles Darwin,” Journal of the History of Ideas 35 (1974): 329–38; David McLellan, Karl Marx: His Life and Thought (New York, 1973), 424.

  4. Erhard Lucas, “Marx' und Engels',” 464.

  5. E. M. Ureña, “Marx and Darwin,” History of Political Economy 9, no. 4 (Winter 1977): 548–59.

  6. Valentino Gerratana, “Marx and Darwin,” New Left Review, no. 82 (Nov.–Dec. 1973): 79–80.

  7. Lewis S. Feuer, “Is the ‘Darwin-Marx Correspondence' Authentic?” Annals of Science 32 (1975): 1–12. See also Lewis Feuer, P. Thomas Carroll, Ralph Colp Jr., “On the Darwin-Marx Correspondence,” Annals of Science 33 (1976): 383–94; Margaret A. Fay, “Did Marx Offer to Dedicate Capital to Darwin?: A Reassessment of the Evidence,” Journal of the History of Ideas 39, no. 1 (January–March, 1978): 133–46.

  8. Edward Aveling to Charles Darwin, 11 October 1880, quoted in Fay, “Did Marx Offer,” 145. This letter was discovered by P. Thomas Carroll and Ralph Colp Jr., in January 1975.

  9. Howard E. Gruber, “Marx and Das Kapital,” Isis 52 (1961): 582.

  10. Einstein to Max and Hedwig Born, 9 September 1920, in Albert Einstein and Max Born, Briefwechsel 1916–1955, ed. Max Born (Munich: Nymphenburger Verlag-shandlung, 1969), 59, trans. A. Martínez.

  11. Jay Weidner, speaking, in Nostradamus: 2012, The History Channel, directed by Andy Pickard, produced by 1080 Entertainment and 2009 A&E Television Networks, aired 8 January 2009.

  Illustration Sources and Credits

  Figures 2.1, 2.2, 2.3, 2.4, 2.5, 2.8, 2.9, 5.3, 7.3, 7.4, 7.5, 7.6, 7.7, 10.1, 10.2, 10.3, 10.4, 10.5, 10.6, 10.7, 10.8, 10.9, 10.10, 10.11, 10.12, 10.13, 10.14, 10.15, 10.16, 10.17, 10.18, 10.19, 12.1: © Alberto A. Martínez.

  Figure 1.1: Frederick Gorton, A High School Course in Physics (New York: D. Appleton and Company, 1918), 69.

  Figures 1.2 and 3.1: F. J. Rowbotham, Story-Lives of Great Scientists (Wells, England: Gardner, Darton, and Company, 1918), 28.

  Figure 2.6: Tychonis Brahe, De Mundi Aetherei Recentioribus Phaenomenis, Liber Secundus (Prague: Uraniburgi Daniae, 1588), 191.

  Figure 2.7: Johannes Kepler, Mysterivm Cosmographicvm (Frankfurt: Erasmi Kempferi, Godefridi Tampachii, 1621). Courtesy of the Harry Ransom Humanities Research Center, The University of Texas at Austin.

  Figure 3.2: Biblia Pauperum (Netherlands: n.p., ca. 1465), 1.

  Figure 4.1: Basilius Valentinus, Les Douze Clefs de Philosophie (Paris: J. et C. Perier, 1624). Courtesy of the Houghton Library of Harvard University. Call # Houghton 24226.28.13.

  Figure 4.2: Newton Ms. 416, undated. Courtesy of the Grace K. Babson Collection, Babson College.

  Figure 4.3: Philadelphia Press, early 1900s.

  Figure 4.4: Arizona Blade and Florence Tribune, 12 December 1903.

  Figure 4.5: New York Times, 19 February 1911.

  Figure 4.6: New York Times, 8 January 1922.

  Figure 5.1: Charles Darwin, Journal of Researches into the Natural History and Geology of the Countries Visited during the Voyage of H.M.S. Beagle Round the World, 2nd ed. (London: John Murray, 1845), 379.

  Figure 5.2: Drawing by Édouard de Montulé, 1816, in Montulé, Voyage en Amérique, Atlas Volume (Paris: Dalannay, 1821). Courtesy of the Houghton Library of Harvard University. Call # Typ 815.21.5790.

  Figure 6.1: Vignette engraving of Benjamin Franklin, national bank note, second charter type, ten dollars, design 485, signed by W. Rosecrans and E. Nebeker, 1870s–1890s, issued by banks in Hagerstown, Maryland, and Washington, D.C.

  Figure 6.2: Woodcut in M. Weems, The Life of Benjamin Franklin; with Many Choice Anecdotes (Philadelphia: Lippincott, 1884), 167.

  Figure 7.1: Louis Figuier, Les Merveilles de la Science, vol. 1 (Paris: Furne, Jouvet et cie., 1867). Courtesy of the Harry Ransom Humanities Research Center, The University of Texas at Austin.

  Figure 7.2: Coulomb, “Premier Mémoire sur l'Électricité et le Magnétisme,” Mémoires de l'Académie Royale des Sciences (1785; Paris: Imprimerie Royale, 1788), 576. Courtesy of the Houghton Library of Harvard University. Call # Houghton Phys 3037.1.

  Figures 8.1 and 8.2: William Crookes, On Radiant Matter. A Lecture Delivered to the British Association for the Advancement of Science (London: E. J. Davey, 1879), 16. Courtesy of the Harry Ransom Humanities Research Center, The University of Texas at Austin.

  Figure 13.1: German Bible (Nuremberg: Anton Koberger, 1483), chap. 6.

  Index

  absolute time. See time, absolute

  Academy of Sciences, Paris, 123, 131, 136, 140, 142, 178, 287

  Academy of Sciences, Bordeaux, 120, 287–88

  Academy Olympia, 197, 226

  Achinstein, Peter, 161

  Act against Multipliers, 76, 83

  Adam and Eve, 52, 58, 60, 76

  Aldini, Giovanni, 128–29

  agnosticism, 164, 168–71, 251, 314

  alchemy, 70–94, 158, 232, 255; Boyle on, 81–84; Einstein on, 253–54; Newton on, 63–64, 71, 83–84; and Pythagoras, 70–75, 85, 93, 278, 280; Trevisan on, 77; Valentine on, 77–83

  Alcock, Thomas, 65

  Aldini, Giovanni, 128–29

  Apollo, the sun god, 40, 42, 71, 72, 78–80, 83, 266, 267

  Apollonius of Tyana, 42, 70, 267

  aqua regia, 80–82, 280

  Arabatzis, Theodore, 157, 159, 292, 295

  Archimedes, 14–15, 41

  Aristarchus of Samos, 14–15, 19, 24, 41

  Aristotle, on Earth's motion, 13–14, 41, 46, 260; on the elements, 265; on falling bodies, 3, 5–7, 9–10, 12, 250, 258; on the heavens, 16, 24–25, 29–30, 35, 38, 45; on Thales of Miletus, 290; on Pythagoras, 16

  Armstrong, Henry, 159

  astrology, 22, 43, 45, 70, 232, 266, 267–69

  atheism, 82, 164, 166–68, 171, 251

  Augustine of Hippo, Saint, 43, 268, 269

  Aveling, Edward, 251

  Avitus, Alcimus, 274

  Baldwin, James Mark, 221–22, 224

  Baliani, Giovanni, 10

  Bacchus, god of wine, 71

  Baretti, Giuseppe, 44

  Becquerel, Henri, 85, 90

  Bellarmino, Roberto, 36–37, 43

  Bellaso, Giovanni, 259

  Belyaev, Dmitri, 245–46

  Bergner, Elisabeth, 166

  Bessel, Friedrich, 46, 270

  Besso, Michele Angelo, 174–75, 197, 207–13, 217, 305

>   Bible, 22, 25, 34–36, 40, 41, 44, 52, 58, 60, 76, 105, 267, 278; Bellarmino on, 36; Brahe on, 25; Catholic theologians on, 25, 35–36, 44, Einstein on, 164, 169–70; and Eve's apple, 274; Foscarini on, 36; Galileo on, 34–35; Kepler on, 28, 34–35; Luther on, 22

  Biot, Jean-Baptiste, 274–75, 289

  Blondel, Christine, 141, 291

  Bolton, Henry Carrington, 84

  Boltzmann, Ludwig, 196

  Boulliau, Ismaël, 57

  Bowman, David, 97

  “Boyle's Law,” 81, 279

  Boyle, Robert, 81–84, 279

  Brahe, Tycho, 23–27, 41, 45, 46; death of, 26, 263; nose of, 23–24, 262

  Brewster, David, 53–54, 65–67, 276

  Bruno, Giordano, xi, 29–31, 33, 36, 41, 249, 263, 269

  Bryson, Bill, xii

  Buck, Carrie, 237

  Buckland, William, 101

  Buchwald, Jed Z., 141, 142,

  Burnet, Gilbert, 82

  Byron, George, 60–62, 63

  Cabeo, Niccolò, 8, 10

  Caesar, Julius, 19, 47, 90, 270

  calendars, 19, 23–24, 47–48, 128, 270

  Calvin, John, 23, 37, 39; followers of, 30

  Campbell, Joseph, 94

  Campbell, Norman, 156

  catastrophism, 99–103, 104, 284

  cathode rays, 150–63, 292, 293, 294

  Catholic Church, 19, 22, 24, 30, 35–45, 76–77, 164, 267, 269. See also Christianity

  Catholic Inquisition, 2, 30, 36–40, 43, 249

  Caverni, Rafaello, 10

  Chalmers, Thomas, 64, 275–76

  Christianity, 23, 35, 37, 40–44, 164, 171, 251, 266–67. See also Calvin, John; Catholic Church; God; Jesus Christ; Luther, Martin; Pope

  Chronos, god of time, 206

  Cicero, Marcus Tullius, 19, 38, 268

  circular motions, Aristarchus on, 14–15; Brahe on, 25–27; Bruno against, 29–30, 263; Copernicus on, 19, 23, 41; Foscarini on, 35; Galileo on, 39; Kepler on, 29, 46; of planets, 13–18, 23, 46; Ptolemy on, 16–20, 41; and the Pythagoreans, 13, 41, 265, 266

 

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