The Blank Slate

by Steven Pinker

18. Hayek, 1976.

  19. This is a point of contact with an alternative theory of the psychological underpinnings of the left-right divide proposed by the linguist George Lakoff: that the left believes that government should act like a nurturant parent, whereas the right believes it should act like a strict parent; see Lakoff, 1996.

  20. See Chapter 14, and also Burnstein, Crandall, & Kitayama, 1994; Chagnon, 1992; Daly, Salmon, & Wilson, 1997; Daly & Wilson, 1988; Fox, 1984; Gaulin & McBurney, 2001, pp. 321–329; Mount, 1992; Petrinovich, O’Neill, & Jorgensen, 1993; Shoumatoff, 1985.

  21. See Chapter 14, and also Bowles & Gintis, 1999; Cosmides & Tooby, 1992; Fehr, Fischbacher, & Gächter, in press; Fehr & Gächter, 2000; Fiske, 1992; Gaulin & McBurney, 2001, pp. 333–335; Gintis, 2000; Klaw, 1993; McCord, 1989; Muravchik, 2002; Price, Cosmides, & Tooby, 2002; Ridley, 1997; Spann, 1989; Williams, Harkins, & Latané, 1981.

  22. See Chapters 3 and 17, especially the references in notes 39, 52, 53, 72, 73, and 74 in Chapter 3, and notes 42, 43, and 45 in Chapter 17.

  23. Brown, 1991; Brown, 1985; Sherif, 1966; Tajfel, 1981.

  24. See Chapters 3 and 19, and also Bouchard, 1994; Neisser et al., 1996; Plomin et al., 2001.

  25. See Chapter 14, and also Aronson, 1980; Festinger, 1957; Gazzaniga, 1998; Greenwald, 1988; Nesse & Lloyd, 1992; Wright, 1994.

  26. See Chapter 15, and also Haidt, in press; Haidt, Koller, & Dias, 1993; Petrinovich, O’Neill, & Jorgensen, 1993; Rozin, Markwith, & Stoess, 1997; Shweder et al., 1997; Singer, 1981; Tetlock, 1999; Tetlock et al., 2000.

  27. Sowell, 1987.

  28. Marx & Engels, 1844/1988.

  29. Quoted in Singer, 1999, p.4.

  30. Bullock, 1991; Chirot, 1994; Conquest, 2000; Courtois et al., 1999; Glover, 1999.

  31. Quoted in J. Getlin, “Natural wonder: At heart, Edward Wilson’s an ant man,” Los Angeles Times, October 21, 1994, p. El.

  32. Federalist Papers No. 51, Rossiter, 1961, p.322.

  33. Bailyn, 1967/1992; Maier, 1997.

  34. Lutz, 1984.

  35. McGinnis, 1996; McGinnis, 1997.

  36. Federalist Papers No. 10, Rossiter, 1961, p. 78.

  37. Quoted in McGinnis, 1997, p.236.

  38. Federalist Papers No. 72, Rossiter, 1961, p.437.

  39. Federalist Papers No. 51, Rossiter, 1961, p.322.

  40. Federalist Papers No. 51, Rossiter, 1961, pp. 331–332.

  41. From Helvedius No. 4, quoted in McGinnis, 1997, p.130.

  42. Boehm, 1999; de Waal, 1998; Dunbar, 1998.

  43. Singer, 1999, p.5.

  44. L. Arnhart, M. J. Behe, & W. A. Dembski, “Conservatives, Darwin, and design: An exchange,” First Things, 107, November 2000, pp. 23–31.

  45. For arguments similar to Singer’s, see Brociner, 2001.

  46. Singer, 1999, p.6.

  47. Singer, 1999, pp. 8–9.

  48. Chomsky, 1970, p.22.

  49. See Barsky, 1997; Chomsky, 1988a.

  50. Chomsky, 1975, p.131.

  51. Trivers, 1981.

  52. A. Wooldridge, “Bell Curve liberals,” New Republic, February 27, 1995.

  53. Herrnstein & Murray, 1994, chap. 22. See also Murray’s afterword in the 1996 paperback edition.

  54. Gigerenzer & Selten, 2001; Jones, 2001; Kahneman & Tversky, 1984; Thaler, 1994; Tversky & Kahneman, 1974.

  55. Akerlof, 1984; Daly & Wilson, 1994; Jones, 2001; Rogers, 1994.

  56. Frank, 1999; Frank, 1985.

  57. Bowles & Gintis, 1998; Bowles & Gintis, 1999.

  58. Gintis, 2000.

  59. Wilkinson, 2000.

  60. Daly & Wilson, 1988; Daly, Wilson, & Vasdev, 2001; Wilson & Daly, 1997.

  Chapter 17: Violence

  1. Quoted by R. Cooper in “The long peace,” Prospect, April 1999.

  2. National Defense Council Foundation, Alexandria, Va., www.ndcf.org/index.htm.

  3. Bamforth, 1994; Chagnon, 1996; Daly & Wilson, 1988; Ember, 1978; Ghiglieri, 1999; Gibbons, 1997; Keeley, 1996; Kingdon, 1993; Knauft, 1987; Krech, 1994; Krech, 1999; Wrangham & Peterson, 1996.

  4. Keeley, 1996; Walker, 2001.

  5. Gibbons, 1997; Holden, 2000.

  6. Fernández-Jalvo et al., 1996.

  7. FBI Uniform Crime Reports 1999: www.fbi.gov/ucr/99cius.htm.

  8. Seville, 1990.

  9. Ortega y Gasset, 1932/1985, epilogue.

  10. New York Times, June 13, 1999.

  11. Paul Billings, quoted in B. H. Kevles & D. J. Kevles, “Scapegoat biology,” Discover, October 1997, pp. 59–62, quotation from p.62.

  12. B. H. Kevles & D. J. Kevles, “Scapegoat biology,” Discover, October 1997, pp. 59–62, quotation from p.62.

  13. Daphne White, quoted in M. Wilkinson, “Parent group lists ‘dirty dozen’ toys,” Boston Globe, December 5, 2000, p.A5.

  14. H. Spivak & D. Prothrow-Stith, “The next tragedy of Jonesboro,” Boston Globe, April 5, 1998.

  15. C. Burrell, “Study of inmates cites abuse factor,” Associated Press, April 27, 1998.

  16. G. Kane, “Violence as a cultural imperative,” Boston Sunday Globe, October 6, 1996.

  17. Quoted in A. Flint, “Some see bombing’s roots in a US culture of conflict,” Boston Globe, June 1, 1995.

  18. A. Flint, “Some see bombing’s roots in a US culture of conflict,” Boston Globe, June 1, 1995.

  19. M. Zuckoff, “More murders, more debate,” Boston Globe, July 31, 1999.

  20. A. Diamant, “What’s the matter with men?” Boston Globe Magazine, March 14, 1993.

  21. Mesquida & Wiener, 1996.

  22. Freedman, 2002.

  23. Fischoff, 1999; Freedman, 1984; Freedman, 1996; Freedman, 2002; Renfrew, 1997.

  24. Charlton, 1997.

  25. J. Q. Wilson, “Hostility in America,” New Republic, August 25, 1997, pp. 38–41.

  26. Nisbett & Cohen, 1996.

  27. E. Marshal, “The shots heard ‘round the world,” Science, 289, 2000, pp. 570–574.

  28. Wakefield, 1992.

  29. M. Enserink, “Searching for the mark of Cain,” Science, 289, 2000, pp. 575–579; quotation from p.579.

  30. Clark, 1970, p.220.

  31. Daly & Wilson, 1988, p.be.

  32. Shipman, 1994, p.252.

  33. E. Marshal, “A sinister plot or victim of politics?” Science, 289, 2000, p.571.

  34. Shipman, 1994, p.243.

  35. Quoted in R. Wright, “The biology of violence,” New Yorker, March 13, 1995, pp. 68–77; quotation from p.69.

  36. Daly & Wilson, 1988.

  37. Daly & Wilson, 1988; Rogers, 1994; Wilson & Herrnstein, 1985.

  38. Quoted by Frederick Goodwin in R. Wright, “The biology of violence,” New Yorker, March 13, 1995, p.70.

  39. C. Holden, “The violence of the lambs,” Science, 289, 2000, pp. 580–581.

  40. Hare, 1993; Lykken, 1995; Rice, 1997.

  41. Ghiglieri, 1999; Wrangham & Peterson, 1996.

  42. Davidson, Putnam, & Larson, 2000; Renfrew, 1997.

  43. Geary, 1998, pp. 226–227; Sherif, 1966.

  44. R. Tremblay, quoted in C. Holden, “The violence of the lambs,” Science, 289, 2000, pp. 580–581.

  45. Buss & Duntley, in press; Kenrick & Sheets, 1994.

  46. Hobbes, 1651/1957, p.185.

  47. Dawkins, 1976/1989, p.66.

  48. Bueno de Mesquita, 1981.

  49. Trivers, 1972.

  50. Chagnon, 1992; Daly & Wilson, 1988; Keeley, 1996.

  51. Daly & Wilson, 1988, p.163.

  52. Rogers, 1994; Wilson & Daly, 1997.

  53. Wilson & Herrnstein, 1985.

  54. Mesquida & Wiener, 1996.

  55. Singer, 1981.

  56. Wright, 2000.

  57. Glover, 1999.

  58. Zimbardo, Maslach, & Haney, 2000.

  59. Quoted in Glover, 1999, p.53.

  60. Quoted in Glover, 1999, pp. 37–38.

  61. Bourke, 1999, pp. 63–64; Graves, 1992; Spiller, 1988.

  62. Bourke, 1999; Glover, 1999; H
orowitz, 2001.

  63. Daly & Wilson, 1988; Glover, 1999; Schelling, 1960.

  64. Chagnon, 1992; Daly & Wilson, 1988; Wrangham & Peterson, 1996.

  65. Van den Berghe, 1981.

  66. Epstein, 1994; Epstein & Axtell, 1996; Richardson, 1960; Saperstein, 1995.

  67. Chagnon, 1988; Chagnon, 1992.

  68. Glover, 1999.

  69. Vasquez, 1992.

  70. Rosen, 1992.

  71. Wrangham, 1999.

  72. Daly & Wilson, 1988.

  73. Daly & Wilson, 1988, pp. 225–226.

  74. Daly & Wilson, 1988; Frank, 1988; Schelling, 1960.

  75. Brown, 1985; Horowitz, 2001.

  76. Daly & Wilson, 1988.

  77. Daly & Wilson, 1988; Fox & Zawitz, 2000; Nisbett & Cohen, 1996.

  78. Daly & Wilson, 1988, p.127.

  79. Daly & Wilson, 1988, p.229.

  80. Chagnon, 1992; Daly & Wilson, 1988; Frank, 1988.

  81. Nisbett & Cohen, 1996.

  82. Nisbett & Cohen, 1996.

  83. E. Anderson, “The code of the streets,” Atlantic Monthly, May 1994, pp. 81–94.

  84. See also Patterson, 1997.

  85. E. Anderson, “The code of the streets,” Atlantic Monthly, May 1994, pp. 81–94, quotation from p.82.

  86. Quoted in L. Helmuth, “Has America’s tide of violence receded for good?” Science, 289, 2000, pp. 582–585, quotation from p.582.

  87. L. Helmuth, “Has America’s tide of violence receded for good?” Science, 289, 2000, pp. 582–585, quotation from p.583.

  88. Wilkinson, 2000; Wilson & Daly, 1997.

  89. Harris, 1998a, pp. 212–213.

  90. Hobbes, 1651/1957, p.190.

  91. Hobbes, 1651/1957, p.223.

  92. Fry, 2000.

  93. Daly & Wilson, 1988; Keeley, 1996.

  94. Daly & Wilson, 1988; Nisbett & Cohen, 1996.

  95. Daly & Wilson, 1988.

  96. Daly & Wilson, 1988.

  97. Wilson & Herrnstein, 1985.

  98. L. Helmuth, “Has America’s tide of violence receded for good?” Science, 289, 2000; Kelling & Sousa, 2001.

  99. Time, October 17, 1969, p.47.

  100. Kennedy, 1997.

  101. National Defense Council Foundation, Alexandria, Va., www.ndcf.org/index.htm.

  102. Quoted by Glover, 1999, p.227.

  103. Horowitz, 2001; Keegan, 1976.

  104. C. Nickerson, “Canadians remain gun-shy of Americans,” Boston Globe, February 11, 2001.

  105. Quoted in Wright, 2000, p.61.

  106. Chagnon, 1988; Chagnon, 1992.

  107. Axelrod, 1984.

  108. Glover, 1999, p.159.

  109. Glover, 1999, p.202.

  110. Axelrod, 1984; Ridley, 1997.

  111. Glover, 1999, pp.231–232.

  112. M. J. Wilkinson, personal communication, October 29, 2001; Wilkinson, in press.

  113. See Chapters 3 and 13, and also Fodor & Pylyshyn, 1988; Miller, Galanter, & Pribram, 1960; Pinker, 1997, chap. 2; Pinker, 1999, chap. 1.

  Chapter 18: Gender

  1. Jaggar, 1983.

  2. Quoted in Jaggar, 1983, p.27.

  3. J. N. Wilford, “Sexes equal on South Sea isle,” New York Times, March 29, 1994.

  4. L. Tye, “Girls appear to be closing aggression gap with boys,” Boston Globe, March 26, 1998.

  5. M. Zoll, “What about the boys?” Boston Globe, April 23, 1998.

  6. Quoted in Young, 1999, p.247.

  7. Crittenden, 1999; Shalit, 1999.

  8. L. Kass, “The end of courtship,” Public Interest, 126, Winter 1997.

  9. Patai, 1998.

  10. Grant, 1993; Jaggar, 1983; Tong, 1998.

  11. Sommers, 1994. See also Jaggar, 1983.

  12. Quoted in Sommers, 1994, p.22.

  13. Gilligan, 1982.

  14. Jaffe & Hyde, 2000; Sommers, 1994, chap. 7; Walker, 1984.

  15. Belenky et al., 1986.

  16. Denfeld, 1995; Kaminer, 1990; Lehrman, 1997; McElroy, 1996; Paglia, 1992; Patai, 1998; Patai & Koertge, 1994; Sommers, 1994; Taylor, 1992; Young, 1999.

  17. Sommers, 1994.

  18. Denfeld, 1995; Lehrman, 1997; Roiphe, 1993; Walker, 1995.

  19. S. Boxer, “One casualty of the women’s movement: Feminism,” New York Times, December 14, 1997.

  20. C. Paglia, “Crying wolf,” Salon, February 7, 2001.

  21. Patai, 1998; Sommers, 1994.

  22. Trivers, 1976; Trivers, 1981; Trivers, 1985.

  23. Trivers & Willard, 1973.

  24. Jensen, 1998, chap. 13.

  25. Blum, 1997; Eagly, 1995; Geary, 1998; Halpern, 2000; Kimura, 1999.

  26. Salmon & Symons, 2001; Symons, 1979.

  27. Daly & Wilson, 1988. Surgery anecdote from Barry, 1995.

  28. Geary, 1998; Maccoby & Jacklin, 1987.

  29. Geary, 1998; Halpern, 2000; Kimura, 1999.

  30. Blum, 1997; Geary, 1998; Halpern, 2000; Hedges & Nowell, 1995; Lubinski & Benbow, 1992.

  31. Hedges & Nowell, 1995; Lubinski & Ben-bow, 1992.

  32. Blum, 1997; Geary, 1998; Halpern, 2000; Kimura, 1999.

  33. Blum, 1997; Geary, 1998; Halpern, 2000; Kimura, 1999.

  34. Provine, 1993.

  35. Hrdy, 1999.

  36. Fausto-Sterling, 1985, pp. 152–153.

  37. Brown, 1991.

  38. Buss, 1999; Geary, 1998; Ridley, 1993; Symons, 1979; Trivers, 1972.

  39. Daly & Wilson, 1983; Geary, 1998; Hauser, 2000.

  40. Geary, 1998; Silverman & Eals, 1992.

  41. Gibbons, 2000.

  42. Blum, 1997; Geary, 1998; Halpern, 2000; Kimura, 1999.

  43. Blum, 1997; Geary, 1998; Gur & Gur, in press; Gur et al., 1999; Halpern, 2000; Jensen, 1998; Kimura, 1999; Neisser et al., 1996.

  44. Dabbs & Dabbs, 2000; Geary, 1998; Halpern, 2000; Kimura, 1999; Sapolsky, 1997.

  45. A. Sullivan, “Testosterone power,” Women’s Quarterly, Summer 2000.

  46. Kimura, 1999.

  47. Blum, 1997; Gangestad & Thornhill, 1998.

  48. Blum, 1997; Geary, 1998; Halpern, 2000; Kimura, 1999.

  49. Symons, 1979, chap. 9.

  50. Reiner, 2000.

  51. Quoted in Halpern, 2000, p.9.

  52. Quoted in Colapinto, 2000.

  53. Colapinto, 2000; Diamond & Sigmundson, 1997.

  54. Skuse et al., 1997.

  55. Barkley et al., 1977; Harris, 1998a; Lytton & Romney, 1991; Maccoby & Jacklin, 1987.

  56. B. Friedan, “The future of feminism,” Free Inquiry, Summer 1999.

  57. “Land of plenty: Diversity as America’s competitive edge in science, engineering, and technology,” Report of the Congressional Commission on the Advancement of Women and Minorities in Science, Engineering, and Technology Development, September 2000.

  58. J. Alper, “The pipeline is leaking women all the way along,” Science, 260, April 16, 1993; J. Mervis, “Efforts to boost diversity face persistent problems,” Science, 284, June 11, 1999; J. Mervis, “Diversity: Easier said than done,” Science, 289, March 16, 2000; J. Mervis, “NSF searches for right way to help women,” Science, 289, July 21, 2000; J. Mervis, “Gender equity: NSF program targets institutional change,” Science, 291, July 21, 2001.

  59. J. Mervis, “Efforts to boost diversity face persistent problems,” Science, 284, June 11, 1999, p.1757.

  60. P. Healy, “Faculty shortage: Women in sciences,” Boston Globe, January 31, 2001.

  61. C. Holden, “Parity as a goal sparks bitter battle,” Science, 289, July 21, 2000, p.380.

  62. Quoted in Young, 1999, pp. 22, 34–35.

  63. Estrich, 2000; Furchtgott-Roth & Stolba, 1999; Goldin, 1990; Gottfredson, 1988; Haus-man, 1999; Kleinfeld, 1999; Lehrman, 1997; Lubinski & Benbow, 1992; Roback, 1993; Schwartz, 1992; Young, 1999.

  64. Browne, 1998; Furchtgott-Roth & Stolba, 1999; Goldin, 1990.

  65. In a random sample of 100 members of the International Association for the Study of Child Language, I counted 75 women and 25 men
. The Stanford Child Language Research Forum lists 18 past keynote speakers on its web site (csli.stanford.edu/~clrf/history.html): 15 women and 3 men.

  66. Browne, 1998; Furchtgott-Roth & Stolba, 1999; Goldin, 1990; Gottfredson, 1988; Kleinfeld, 1999; Roback, 1993; Young, 1999.

  67. Lubinski & Benbow, 1992.

  68. See Browne, 1998, and the references in note 63.

  69. Buss, 1992; Ellis, 1992.

  70. Hrdy, 1999.

  71. Browne, 1998; Hrdy, 1999.

  72. Roback, 1993.

  73. Becker, 1991.

  74. Furchtgott-Roth & Stolba, 1999.

  75. Quoted in C. Young, “Sex and science,” Salon, April 12, 2001.

  76. Quoted in C. Holden, “Parity as a goal sparks bitter battle,” Science, 289, July 21, 2000.

  77. Quoted in C. Holden, “Parity as a goal sparks bitter battle,” Science, 289, July 21, 2000.

  78. Kleinfeld, 1999.

  79. National Science Foundation, Women, Minorities, and Persons with Disabilities in Science and Engineering: 1998, www.nsf.gov/sbe/srs/nsf99338.

  80. Thornhill & Palmer, 2000.

  81. “Report on the situation of human rights in the territory of the former Yugoslavia,” 1993. United Nations Document E/CN.4/1993/50.

  82. J. E. Beals, “Ending the silence on sexual violence,” Boston Globe, April 10, 2000.

  83. R. Haynor, “Violence against women,” Boston Globe, October 22, 2000.

  84. Brownmiller, 1975, p.14.

  85. Young, 1999, p.139.

  86. McElroy, 1996.

  87. McElroy, 1996.

  88. Thiessen & Young, 1994.

  89. Dworkin, 1993.

  90. J. Tooby & L. Cosmides, “Reply to Jerry Coyne,” www.psych.ucsb.edu/research/cep/tnr.html.

  91. Gordon & Riger, 1991, p.47.

  92. Rose & Rose, 2000, p.139.

  93. M. Wertheim, “Born to rape?” Salon, February 29, 2000.

  94. G. Miller, “Why men rape,” Evening Standard, March 6, 2000, p.53.

  95. Symons, 1979; Thornhill & Palmer, 2000.

  96. Jones, 1999. See also Check & Malamuth, 1985; Ellis & Beattie, 1983; Symons, 1979; Thornhill & Palmer, 2000.

  97. Gottschall & Gottschall, 2001.

  98. Jones, 1999, p.890.

  99. Bureau of Justice Statistics, www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs.

  100. Quoted in A. Humphreys, “Lawyers may use genetics study in rape defense,” National Post (Canada), January 22, 2000, p.A8.

  101. Quoted in Jones, 1999.

  102. Paglia, 1990, pp. 51, 57.

  103. McElroy, 1996.

  104. J. Phillips, “Exploring inside to live on the outside,” Boston Globe, March 21, 1999.