Year Zero

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Year Zero Page 39

by Ian Buruma


  8. Ibid., 33.

  9. Nicolson, Diaries, 318.

  10. Wilson, Europe Without Baedeker, 135.

  11. Ibid., 186.

  12. Noel Annan, Changing Enemies: The Defeat and Regeneration of Germany (New York: W. W. Norton, 1996), 183.

  13. Paul Addison, Now the War Is Over: A Social History of Britain, 1945–51 (London: Jonathan Cape and the British Broadcasting Corporation, 1985), 14.

  14. Ibid., 13.

  15. Cyril Connolly, Horizon, June 1945, reprinted in Ideas and Places (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1953), 27.

  16. Manchester Guardian, June 5, 1945.

  17. Ibid., June 26, 1945.

  18. Roy Jenkins, Mr. Attlee: An Interim Biography (London: Heinemann, 1948), 255.

  19. Stéphane Hessel, Indignez vous! (Montpellier, France: Indigène Editions), 10.

  20. Duras, The War, 33.

  21. Arthur Koestler, The Yogi and the Commissar (New York: Macmillan, 1945), 82.

  22. Addison, Now the War Is Over, 18.

  23. Annan, Changing Enemies, 183.

  24. Winston Churchill, “Speech to the Academic Youth,” Zurich, September 9, 1946.

  25. Nicolson, Diaries, 333.

  26. Jean Monnet, Mémoires (Paris: Fayard, 1976), 283.

  27. See Tessel Pollmann, Van Waterstaat tot Wederopbouw: het leven van dr.ir. J.A. Ringers (1885-1965) (Amsterdam: Boom, 2006).

  28. Dower, Embracing Defeat, 537.

  29. Ibid.

  30. Ibid., 538.

  31. Owen Lattimore, Solution in Asia (Boston: Little, Brown, 1945), 189.

  32. Cohen, Remaking Japan, 42.

  33. Morita Yoshio, Chosen Shusen no kiroku: beiso no to Nihonjin no hikiage (Tokyo: Gannando Shoten, 1964), 77.

  34. Bruce Cumings, The Origins of the Korean War: Liberation and the Emergence of Separate Regimes, 1945–1947 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1981), 88.

  35. Yank, November 2, 1945.

  36. Cary, ed., From a Ruined Empire, 32.

  37. Yank, November 2, 1945.

  38. Cumings, Origins of the Korean War, 392.

  39. Spector, In the Ruins of Empire, 163.

  40. Ibid., 160.

  41. Ibid., 148.

  42. Cary, ed., From a Ruined Empire, 197.

  43. Robert Skidelsky, John Maynard Keynes, 1883–1946: Economist, Philosopher, Statesman (New York: Penguin Books, 2005), 779.

  44. Nicolson, Diaries, 325.

  45. Judt, Postwar, 88.

  CHAPTER 8: CIVILIZING THE BRUTES

  1. Dower, Embracing Defeat, 215–17.

  2. Annan, Changing Enemies, 160.

  3. Ibid., 162.

  4. Döblin and Feuchtwanger quoted in Tent, Mission on the Rhine, 23.

  5. Quoted in Tent, Mission on the Rhine, 39.

  6. Nicholas Pronay and Keith Wilson, eds., The Political Re-education of Germany and Her Allies after World War II (London: Croom Helm, 1985), 198.

  7. Günter Grass, Beim Haüten der Zwiebel (Göttingen: Steidl, 2006), 220–21.

  8. John Gimbel, A German Community Under American Occupation: Marburg, 1945–52 (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1961), 168.

  9. Pronay and Wilson, eds., The Political Re-education of Germany, 173.

  10. Yank, July, 20, 1945.

  11. Ibid.

  12. Spender, European Witness, 229.

  13. Yank, July 20, 1945.

  14. Spender, European Witness, 44.

  15. Ibid., 46.

  16. Ibid., 158.

  17. Andreas-Friedrich, Battleground Berlin, 82.

  18. Naimark, The Russians in Germany, 399.

  19. Ibid., 402.

  20. Andreas-Friedrich, Battleground Berlin, 66.

  21. Bach, America’s Germany, 228.

  22. Ibid.

  23. Andreas-Friedrich, Battleground Berlin, 92.

  24. Bach, America’s Germany, 218.

  25. The Times (London), July 11, 1945.

  26. Dower, Embracing Defeat, 190.

  27. De Beauvoir, Force of Circumstance, 17.

  28. Ibid., 33.

  29. Corinne Defrance, La politique culturelle de la France sur la rive gauche du Rhin, 1945-1955 (Strasbourg: Presses Universitaires de Strasbourg, 1994), 126.

  30. Döblin, Schicksalsreise, 273.

  31. Quoted in Monnet, Mémoires, 339.

  32. Barton J. Bernstein, ed., The Atomic Bomb: The Critical Issues (Boston: Little, Brown, 1976), 113.

  33. Dower, Embracing Defeat, 218.

  34. Ibid., 77.

  35. Edward T. Imparato, General MacArthur: Speeches and Reports, 1908–1964 (Paducah, KY: Turner, 2000), 146.

  36. Bowers, “How Japan Won the War.”

  37. Ibid.

  38. Mainichi Shimbun, quoted in Dower, Embracing Defeat, 549.

  39. Rinjiro, Dear General MacArthur, 33.

  40. Dower, Embracing Defeat, 77.

  41. Quoted by Bowers in “How Japan Won the War.”

  42. Quoted in “The Occupation of Japan,” a seminar sponsored by the MacArthur Memorial Library and Archives, November 1975, 129.

  43. LaCerda, The Conqueror Comes to Tea, 165–66.

  44. Koe, 115.

  45. Dower, Embracing Defeat, 67.

  46. Keene, So Lovely a Country, 118.

  CHAPTER 9: ONE WORLD

  1. Urquhart, A Life in Peace and War, 85.

  2. Ibid., 93.

  3. Stéphane Hessel, Danse avec le siècle (Paris: Editions du Seuil, 1997), 99.

  4. Mark Mazower, Governing the World: The History of an Idea (New York: Penguin Press, 2012), 208.

  5. Ibid., 194.

  6. E. B. White, The Wild Flag: Editorials from The New Yorker on Federal World Government and Other Matters (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1946), 72.

  7. Ibid., 82.

  8. Menno Spiering and Michael Wintle, eds., European Identity and the Second World War (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2011), 126.

  9. John Foster Dulles, War or Peace, with a special preface for this edition (New York: Macmillan, 1957), 38. First published 1950.

  10. Neal Rosendorf, “John Foster Dulles’ Nuclear Schizophrenia,” in John Lewis Gaddis et al., eds., Cold War Statesmen Confront the Bomb: Nuclear Diplomacy Since 1945 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999), 64–69.

  11. Joseph Preston Baratta, The Politics of World Federation: United Nations, UN Reform, Atomic Control (Westport, CT: Praeger, 2004), 127.

  12. New York Times, October 10, 1945.

  13. The Times (London), November 20, 1945.

  14. Townsend Hoopes and Douglas Brinkley, FDR and the Creation of the U.N. (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2000), 41.

  15. Dan Plesch, America, Hitler, and the UN: How the Allies Won World War II and Forged a Peace (London: I. B. Tauris, 2011), 170.

  16. Roosevelt’s words are quoted in Mazower, Governing the World, 209.

  17. “Remarks Upon Receiving an Honorary Degree from the University of Kansas City,” June 28, 1945, trumanlibrary.org/publicpapers/viewpapers.php?pid=75.

  18. White, The Wild Flag, 82.

  19. Yank, June 15, 1945.

  20. Daily Herald, May 1945.

  21. Author’s conversation with Gladwyn Jebb’s grandson, Inigo Thomas.

  22. Time, May 14, 1945.

  23. Urquhart, A Life in Peace and War, 94.

  24. The Nation, June 30, 1945.

  25. Mark Mazower, “The Strange Triumph of Human Rights, 1933–1950,” The Historical Journal 47, no. 2 (June 2004), 392.

  26. William Roger Louis, The British Empire in the Middle East, 1945–1951: Arab Nationalism, the United States, and Postwar Imperialism (New York: Oxford University Press, 1984), 163.

 
27. Manchester Guardian, June 4, 1945.

  28. Louis, British Empire in the Middle East, 148.

  29. The Times (London), October 6, 1945.

  30. White, The Wild Flag, 80.

  31. Ibid., 81.

  32. Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr., A Thousand Days: John F. Kennedy in the White House (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1965), 88–89.

  33. The Times (London), August 17, 1945.

  34. Report by Secretary Byrnes, http://avalon.law.yale.edu/20th_century/decade18.asp.

  35. Dulles, War or Peace, 27.

  36. Ibid., 30.

  37. Ibid., 40.

  38. New York Times, December 31, 1945.

  INDEX

  The page numbers in this index refer to the printed version of this book. The link provided will take you to the beginning of that print page. You may need to scroll forward from that location to find the corresponding reference on your e-reader.

  Aachen, 281–82, 302

  Abs, Hermann Josef, 181–82, 183, 186

  Acheson, Dean, 296

  Action in the North Atlantic, 287

  Adenauer, Konrad, 282, 283, 294, 297

  Adorno, Theodor, 289–90

  Aeschylus, Eumenides, 209–10, 225

  Africa, 253

  agriculture, 63

  Aleppo, 323

  Alexander, Harold, 151

  Algeria, 121–24, 125

  hunger in, 121, 122

  Sétif, 122, 124, 315

  Allied Control Council, 42

  American culture, 289–92

  Hollywood movies, 286–87, 290, 320

  jazz, 289–90, 291

  American Hijiki (Nosaka), 40, 44–45, 55

  American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee (JDC), 168

  American Observer, 286

  Amsterdam, 14, 15, 136

  Andong, 81, 196, 203, 204

  brothel in, 196–97

  Andreas-Friedrich, Ruth, 171–72, 177–78, 180, 235–36, 283, 285–88, 290–91

  “Angelus Novus” (Klee), ix

  Anielewicz, Mordechai, 161–62

  Annan, Noel, 247

  Annei Inn, 196–97

  Antelme, Robert, 138–39

  Aquino, Benigno, 189, 191

  Aquino, Benigno, III, 191

  Aquino, Corazon “Cory,” 191

  Arbuthnot, Robert, 152

  Arc de Triomphe (Remarque), 290

  Arendt, Hannah, 228

  Argentina, 319

  Arnhem, 2, 16, 307

  Asahi, 141–42, 302–3

  Asia, 8, 34, 102, 111

  attacks of vengeance in, 111–13, 117, 118

  displaced people in, 131

  Athens, 106, 108–9, 209

  Atlantic Charter, 314–15, 323, 324

  Atlantic Monthly, 313

  atomic bombs, 312–13, 329

  on Hiroshima, 60, 66, 271, 296, 298, 304, 309, 312–13

  on Nagasaki, 271, 296, 298, 309, 327

  Soviet Union and, 313

  Attlee, Clement, 167, 243, 249–52, 262, 271, 273, 289, 313–14

  Aufbau, 286

  Auschwitz, 93, 133, 161, 163, 182, 183, 206, 228, 229, 231, 232

  Austro-Hungarian Empire, 95, 158, 170

  Ayukawa Gisuke, 260–61

  Bach, Julian Sebastian, 46, 47, 288

  Back Home (Mauldin), 143

  Baden-Baden, 73, 292

  Baker, Beatrice M., 308

  Baldwin, Hanson W., 329

  Balfour, James, 166

  Balfour Declaration, 166–67

  Bancroft, George, 278

  Bandera, Stepan, 170

  Bao Dai, 121

  Bárdossy, Lászó, 207

  Bartov, Hanoch, 160

  Bataan Death March, 213–14

  Battalion X, 116

  Beatles, 23, 51

  Beauvoir, Simone de, 20, 25, 291–92

  Becher, Johannes, 284, 285

  Beckers, Karl, 282

  Beethoven, Ludwig van, 278, 283, 337

  Belarus, 319

  Belgium, 84, 102, 207, 253

  prosecutions for collaboration in, 207

  Beneš, Edvard, 95, 97, 159

  Bengal, 56

  Bengal Famine Mixture, 56

  Ben-Gurion, David, 164–67

  Benjamin, Walter, ix

  Berezhkov, Valentin, 20

  Bergen-Belsen, 15, 21, 29, 31–32, 55–57, 64, 70–71, 76–77, 162, 163, 165, 226, 280, 307

  liberation of, 29–30

  trial at, 228–30, 234

  Berlin, 22, 33, 59–60, 72, 284

  British and U.S. troops in, 42

  destruction of, 4–5

  end of war and, 21

  Berlin Alexanderplatz (Döblin), 72

  Berliner Tagesspiegel, 72

  Berlin Wall, 22, 285, 335–37

  Bernhard, Prince, 24

  Bevin, Ernest, 327, 328–29

  Bhagavad Gita, 313

  Bidault, Georges, 328

  Bimko, Hadassah, 56–57, 229

  Birkenau, 163, 206, 228

  Birley, Robert, 277–78, 279, 284

  birthrates:

  in displaced persons camps, 31–33

  in Netherlands, 28–29, 31

  of illegitimate children, 28–29, 31, 38

  black market, 58–60, 68, 70–72, 82, 105

  in France, 58

  in Germany, 71, 179, 288

  in Japan, 68–70, 140

  in Netherlands, 68

  blacks:

  American racism and, 280, 287

  in Japan, 45

  Blake, William, 249–50

  Blaskowitz, Johannes, 16

  Bleiburg, 147

  Blue Angel, The, 40

  Böll, Heinrich, 70

  Borowski, Tadeusz, 75–76, 77

  Bosnia, 103

  Bowers, Faubion, 297

  Bradford, John P., 281

  Brecht, Bertolt, Threepenny Opera, 283–84, 285

  Breslau, 158

  Bretton Woods Conference, 317–18

  Brigade (Bartov), 160

  Britain, 243–51, 273, 335

  change in social and political attitudes in, 243–48

  Conservative Party in, 243–46, 248, 273

  cultural exchanges between Germany and, 278

  cultural improvement in, 247–48

  elections of 1945 in, 8, 10, 243–45, 250

  food supplies in, 57, 65

  France and, 255, 325

  Germany’s recovery and, 181

  and Jews’ move to Palestine, 167

  Labour Party in, 243–44, 246–48, 250, 271, 273

  London, see London

  Malaya and, 111

  Middle East and, 325

  as model for world government, 310

  New Jerusalem spirit in, 249–51, 270–71

  plans for reforms in, 251

  socialism in, 245, 246, 248–50, 271

  United Nations and, 326

  British Foreign Office, 167–68, 181, 226, 308

  Brother Tomo, 118

  Browning, F. A. M. “Boy,” 16

  Brücke, Die, 278

  Brünn, 158

  Brussels, 273

  Buchenwald, 133, 226, 231, 232, 241–42, 252, 280

  Budapest, 59–60, 133, 205

  Budinszky, László, 207

  Budweis, 75

  Buisson, Patrick, 26

  Byrnes, James F., 328–29

  Cairo, 248

  Calvocoressi, Peter, 237

  Camus, Albert, 310–11

  Canterbury Tale, A, 248–50

 
capitalism, 177, 181

  Carinthia, 145–46

  Carmi, Israel, 99

  Catholics, 311, 312

  Chamberlain, Neville, 255, 323, 335

  Changchun, 196

  Charlemagne, 281

  Charpentier, Jacques, 222–23

  Chataigneau, Yves, 123

  Chekhov, Anton, 284

  Chiang Kai-shek, 62, 66, 102, 124, 191–93, 195, 196, 318, 326, 330

  China, 34, 66, 79, 102, 108, 191–97, 330

  babies sold in, 69–70

  civil war in, 9, 62, 102, 191–97, 328

  Communists in, 192–97, 203–4, 261, 328, 330

  Japan and, 102, 112, 184, 192–97, 299

  Japanese civilians in, 80–81

  Malaya and, 113–14

  Nanking, see Nanking

  Soviet Union and, 80–82, 195–97

  Tsingtao, 193–94

  United Nations and, 316, 318, 326, 328, 329

  Cho Man-sik, 264, 267, 269

  Christian Democrats, 271, 273, 282, 289

  Christian universalism, 311, 322

  Chungking, 330

  Churchill, Clementine, 245

  Churchill, Winston, 19, 91, 103, 107, 150, 154, 155, 227, 244, 246, 247, 250–52, 254, 256, 271, 273, 310, 318–20, 324, 328–29

  Allied victory and, 17, 18–19

  Atlantic Charter and, 314–15

  in elections of 1945, 8, 10, 243–45, 250

  Greece and, 109, 110

  United Nations and, 316–17

  war crimes and, 210, 225–26, 235

  civil wars, 149–50

  Clay, Lucius, 65, 66, 177, 185

  Cleveringa, Rudolph, 3

  Cold War, 9–10, 103, 270, 272, 294, 303, 327–28

  Combat, 310–11

  Cologne, 60, 180, 282, 288

  colonialism, 111, 315, 325–26

  Communist Party, communism, 6, 64, 82, 186, 250, 254–55, 272, 312, 328, 335

  in anti-Nazi and anti-fascist resistance, 102–3, 109, 175

  in China, 192–97, 203–4, 261, 328, 330

  in Czechoslovakia, 97

  in France, 50, 84, 102, 198, 199, 252, 272, 328

  in Germany, 50–51, 66, 67, 180

  Germany’s recovery and, 181

  Greece and, 109, 110

  in Hungary, 205

  in Indonesia, 120

  internationalism and, 112

  Italy and, 105–6, 272

  Japan and, 102, 272, 305

  Jews and, 88

  in Malaya, 112–13

  Nazis and, 181

  people’s trials and, 203–7

  United Nations and, 316, 317

 

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