The Politics of Aristotle

by Aristotle

  [116b1] Also, that which is in itself the cause of good is more desirable than what is so per accidens, e.g. virtue than luck (for the former is in itself, and the latter per accidens, the cause of good things), and so in other cases of the same kind. Likewise also in the case of the contrary; for what is in itself the cause of evil is more [5] objectionable than what is so per accidens, e.g. vice and chance; for the one is so in itself, whereas chance is so per accidens.

  Also, what is good absolutely is more desirable than what is good for a particular person, e.g. recovery of health than a surgical operation; for the former is good absolutely, the latter only for a particular person, viz. the man who needs an [10] operation. So too what is good by nature is more desirable than the good that is not so by nature, e.g. justice than the just man; for the one is good by nature, whereas in the other case the goodness is acquired. Also the attribute is more desirable which belongs to the better and more honourable subject, e.g. to a god rather than to a man, and to the soul rather than to the body. So too the property of the better thing is better than the property of the worse, e.g. the property of God than the property [15] of man; for whereas in respect of what is common in both of them they do not differ at all from each other, in respect of their properties the one surpasses the other. Also that is better which is inherent in things better or prior or more honourable: thus (e.g.) health is better than strength and beauty; for the former is inherent in the moist and the dry, and the hot and the cold, in short in all the primary constituents [20] of an animal, whereas the others are inherent in what is posterior, strength being a feature of the sinews and bones, while beauty is thought to consist in a certain symmetry of the limbs. Also the end is generally supposed to be more desirable than the means, and of two means, that which lies nearer the end. In general, too, a means directed towards the end of life is more desirable than a means to anything else, e.g. that which contributes to happiness than that which contributes to [25] prudence. Also the possible is more desirable than the impossible. Moreover, of two productive agents that one is more desirable whose end is better; while between a productive agent and an end we can decide by a proportional sum: whenever the excess of the one end over the other is greater than that of the latter over its own productive means—e.g. supposing the excess of happiness over health to be greater than that of health over what produces health—then what produces happiness is [30] better than health. For what produces happiness exceeds what produces health just as much as happiness exceeds health. But health exceeds what produces health by a smaller amount; hence, the excess of what produces happiness over what produces health is greater than that of health over what produces health. Clearly, therefore, what produces happiness is more desirable than health; for it exceeds the same [35] standard by a greater amount.

  Moreover, what is in itself nobler and more precious and praiseworthy is more desirable, e.g. friendship than wealth, and justice than strength. For the former belong in themselves to the class of things precious and praiseworthy, while the latter do so not in themselves but for something else; for no one prizes wealth for [117a1] itself but always for something else, whereas we prize friendship for itself, even though nothing else is likely to come to us from it.

  2 · Moreover, whenever two things are very much like one another, and we [5] cannot see any superiority in the one over the other of them, we should look at them from the standpoint of their consequences. For the one which is followed by the greater good is the more desirable; or, if the consequences be evil, that is more desirable which is followed by the less evil. For though both may be desirable, yet there may still be some unpleasant consequence. Our survey from the point of view [10] of consequences lies in two directions, for there are prior consequences and later consequences: e.g. if a man learns, it follows that he was ignorant before and knows afterwards. For the most part, the later consequence is the better. You should take, therefore, whichever of the consequences suits your purpose [15].

  Moreover, a greater number of good things is more desirable than a smaller, either absolutely or when the one is included in the other, viz. the smaller number in the greater. An objection may be raised if in some particular case the one is for the sake of the other; for then the two together are not more desirable than the one; e.g. recovery of health and health, than health alone, inasmuch as we desire recovery of [20] health for the sake of health. Also it is quite possible for what are not good things to be more desirable than a number of good things, e.g. the combination of happiness and something else which is not good may be more desirable than the combination of justice and courage. Also, the same things are more valuable if accompanied than if unaccompanied by pleasure, and likewise when free from pain than when attended with pain.

  [25] Also, everything is more desirable at the season when it is of greater consequence; e.g. freedom from pain in old age more than in youth; for it is of greater consequence in old age. On the same principle also, prudence is more desirable in old age; for no man chooses the young as leaders, because he does not expect them to be prudent. With courage, the converse is the case, for it is in youth [30] that the active exercise of courage is more imperatively required. Likewise also with temperance; for the young are more troubled by their passions than are their elders.

  Also, that is more desirable which is more useful at every season or at most [35] seasons, e.g. justice and temperance rather than courage; for they are always useful, while courage is only useful at times. Also, that one of two things which if all possess, we do not need the other thing, is more desirable than that which all may possess and still we want the other one as well. Take the case of justice and courage: [117b1] if everybody were just, there would be no use for courage, whereas all might be courageous, and still justice would be of use.

  Moreover, judge by the destructions and losses and generations and acquisitions and contraries of things; for things whose destruction is more objectionable are [5] themselves more desirable. Likewise also with the losses and contraries of things; for a thing whose loss or whose contrary is more objectionable is itself more desirable. With the generations or acquisitions of things the opposite is the case; for things whose acquisition or generation is more desirable are themselves also more desirable.

  [10] Another commonplace rule is that what is nearer to the good is better and more desirable; and also what more nearly resembles the good: thus justice is better than a just man. Also, the one which is more like something better than them both, as e.g. some say that Ajax was a better man than Odysseus because he was more like Achilles. (An objection may be raised to this that it is not true; for it is quite possible [15] that Ajax did not resemble Achilles more nearly in the points which made Achilles the best of them, and that Odysseus was a good man, though unlike Achilles. Look also to see whether the resemblance tends to the ridiculous, like the resemblance of a monkey to a man, whereas a horse bears none; for the monkey is not the more handsome creature, despite its nearer resemblance to a man.) Again, in the case of [20] two things, if one is more like the better thing while another is more like the worse, then that will be better which is more like the better. (This too, however, admits of an objection; for quite possibly the one only slightly resembles the better, while the other strongly resembles the worse, e.g. supposing the resemblance of Ajax to [25] Achilles to be slight, while that of Odysseus to Nestor is strong.) Also it may be that the one which is like the better resembles it for the worse, whereas the one which is like the worse resembles it for the better: witness the likeness of a horse to a donkey, and that of a monkey to a man.

  Another rule is that the more conspicuous good is more desirable than the less conspicuous, and the more difficult than the easier; for we appreciate better the possession of things that cannot be easily acquired. Also the more personal [30] possession is more desirable than the more widely shared. Also, that which we share less in common with evil men; [for what is not attended by any unpleasantness is more desirable than what is so attended
.]8

  Moreover, if one thing is without qualification better than another, then also the best of the members of the former is better than the best of the members of the latter; e.g. if man is better than horse, then also the best man is better than the best [35] horse. Also, if the best is better than the best, then also the former is better than the latter without qualification; e.g. if the best man is better than the best horse, then also man is better than horse without qualification.

  Moreover, things which our friends can share are more desirable than those [118a1] they cannot. Also, things which we like rather to do to a friend are more desirable than those we like to do to anyone, e.g. just dealing and the doing of good rather than the semblance of them; for we would rather really do good to our friends than seem to do so, whereas towards anyone the converse is the case. [5]

  Also, superfluities are better than necessities, and are sometimes more desirable as well; for the good life is better than mere life, and good life is a superfluity, whereas mere life itself is a necessity. Sometimes, though, what is better is not also more desirable; for there is no necessity that because it is better it should also be more desirable: at least to be a philosopher is better than to make [10] money, but it is not more desirable for a man who lacks the necessities of life. There is superfluity whenever a man possesses the necessities of life and sets to work to secure as well other noble acquisitions. Roughly speaking, perhaps, necessities are more desirable, while superfluities are better. [15]

  Also, what cannot be got from another is more desirable than what can be got from another as well, as (e.g.) is the case of justice compared with courage. Also, a thing is more desirable if it is desirable without the other, but not the other without it: power (e.g.) is not desirable without prudence, but prudence is desirable without power. Also, if of two things we repudiate the one in order to be thought to possess [20] the other, then that one is more desirable which we wish to be thought to possess; thus (e.g.) we repudiate hard work in order that people may think us naturally gifted.

  Moreover, that is more desirable in whose absence it is less blameworthy for people to be vexed; and that is more desirable in whose absence it is more [25] blameworthy for a man not to be vexed.

  3 · Moreover, of things that belong to the same species one which possesses the virtue appropriate to the species is more desirable than one which does not. If both possess it, then the one which possesses it in a greater degree is more desirable.

  Moreover, if one thing makes good whatever it affects, while another does not, [30] the former is more desirable, just as also what makes things warm is warmer than what does not. If both do so, then that one is more desirable which does so in a greater degree, or if it renders good the better and more important object—if (e.g.) the one affects the soul, and the other the body.

  Moreover, judge things by their inflexions and uses and actions and effects, [35] and judge these by them; for they go with each other: e.g. if ‘justly’ is more desirable than ‘courageously’, then also justice is more desirable than courage; and if justice is more desirable than courage, then also ‘justly’ is more desirable than ‘courageously’. Similarly also in the other cases.

  [118b1] Moreover, if one thing exceeds while the other falls short of the same standard of good, the one which exceeds is the more desirable; or if the one exceeds an even higher standard. Again, if there are two things both more desirable than something, the one which is more desirable to a greater degree is more desirable than the one more desirable to a less degree. Moreover, when the excess of a thing is more [5] desirable than the excess of something else, that thing is itself also more desirable than the other, as (e.g.) friendship than money; for an excess of friendship is more desirable than an excess of money. So also that of which a man would rather that it were his by his own doing is more desirable than what he would rather get by another’s doing, e.g. friends than money.

  [10] Moreover, judge by means of an addition, and see which when added to the same thing makes the whole more desirable. You must, however, beware of adducing a case in which the common term uses, or in some other way helps the case of, one of the things added to it, but not the other, as (e.g.) if you took a saw and a [15] sickle in combination with the art of carpentry; for in the combination the saw is a more desirable thing, but it is not a more desirable thing without qualification. Again, a thing is more desirable if, when added to a lesser good, it makes the whole a greater good. Likewise, also, you should judge by means of subtraction; for the thing upon whose subtraction the remainder is a lesser good may be taken to be a greater good, whichever it be whose subtraction makes the remainder a lesser good.

  [20] Also, if one thing is desirable for itself, and the other because of opinion, the former is more desirable, as (e.g.) health than beauty. A thing is defined as being desired because of opinion if, supposing no one knew of it, you would not care to have it. Also, it is more desirable if it is desirable both for itself and because of opinion, while the other thing is desirable on the one ground alone. Also, whichever is the more precious in itself, is also better and more desirable. A thing may be taken [25] to be more precious in itself which we choose rather for itself, without anything else being likely to come of it.

  Moreover, you should distinguish in how many ways things are called desirable, and with a view to what ends, e.g. expediency or honour or pleasure. For what is useful for all or most of them is more desirable, if they belong to the same [30] degree. If the same characters belong to both things you should look and see which possesses them more markedly, i.e. which of the two is the more pleasant or more honourable or more expedient. Again, that is more desirable which serves the better purpose, e.g. that which serves to promote virtue more than that which serves to promote pleasure. Likewise also in the case of objectionable things; for that is more objectionable which stands more in the way of what is desirable, e.g. disease more [35] than ugliness; for disease is a greater hindrance both to pleasure and to being good.

  Moreover, argue by proving that the thing in question is in like measure objectionable and desirable; for a thing of such a character that a man might well desire and object to it alike is less desirable than the other which is desirable only.

  4 · Comparisons of things with one another should be conducted in the [119a1] manner prescribed. The same commonplace rules are useful also for showing that anything is desirable or objectionable; for we have only to subtract the excess of one thing over another. For if what is more precious is more desirable, then also what is precious is desirable; and if what is more useful is more desirable, then also what is [5] useful is desirable. Likewise, also, in the case of other things which admit of comparisons of that kind. For in some cases in the very course of comparing the things together we at once assert also that each of them, or the one of them, is desirable, e.g. whenever we call the one good by nature and the other not by nature; [10] for clearly what is good by nature is desirable.

  5 · The commonplace rules relating to comparative degrees and amounts ought to be taken in the most general possible form; for when so taken they are likely to be useful in a large number of instances. It is possible to render some of the actual rules given above more universal by a slight alteration of the expression, e.g. [15] that what by nature exhibits such and such a quality exhibits that quality in a greater degree than what exhibits it not by nature. Also, if one thing does, and another does not, impart such and such a quality to that which possesses it, then whichever does impart it is of that quality in greater degree than the one which does not impart it; and if both impart it, then that one exhibits it in a greater degree which imparts it in a greater degree.

  Moreover, if in any character one thing exceeds and another falls short of the [20] same standard; also, if the one exceeds something which possesses the character, while the other exceeds something which does not, then clearly the first thing exhibits that character in a greater degree. Moreover, you should judge by means of addition, and see i
f when added to the same thing it imparts to the whole such and such a character in a more marked degree, or if, when added to a thing which exhibits that character in a less degree, it imparts that character to the whole in a greater degree. Likewise, also, you may judge by means of subtraction; for a thing [25] upon whose subtraction the remainder exhibits such and such a character in a less degree, itself exhibits that character in a greater degree. Also, things exhibit such and such a character in a greater degree if more free from admixture with their contraries; e.g. that is whiter which is more free from admixture with black. Moreover, apart from the rules given above, that has such and such a character in greater degree which admits in a greater degree of the account proper to the given [30] character; e.g. if the account of ‘white’ is a colour which disperses the vision, then that is whiter which is in a greater degree a colour that disperses the vision.

  6 · If the problem is put in a particular and not in a universal form, in the first place9 the universal constructive or destructive commonplace rules that have been given may all be brought into use. For in demolishing or establishing a thing [35] universally we also prove it in particular; for if it belongs to all, it belongs also to some, and if to none, not to some. Especially handy and of general application are the commonplace rules that are drawn from the opposites and co-ordinates and inflexions; for it is equally reputable to claim that if all pleasure is good, then also all [119b1] pain is evil, and that if some pleasure is good, then also some pain is evil. Moreover, if some form of perception is not a capacity, then also some form of failure of perception is not a failure of capacity. Also, if some objects of belief are objects of knowledge, then also some form of belief is knowledge. Again, if what happens [5] unjustly is in some cases good, then some unjust things are good. Also, if what is done with pleasure is in some cases objectionable, then pleasure is in some cases an objectionable thing. On the same principle, also, if what is pleasant is in some cases beneficial, then pleasure is in some cases good. The case is the same also as regards the things that destroy, and the processes of generation and destruction. For if some [10] things that destroy pleasure or knowledge are good, then pleasure or knowledge is in some cases an evil thing. Likewise, also, if the destruction of knowledge is in some cases a good thing or its production an evil thing, then knowledge will be in some cases an evil thing; e.g. if for a man to forget his disgraceful conduct is a good thing, or to remember it an evil thing, then the knowledge of his disgraceful conduct is an [15] evil thing. The same holds also in other cases; for all are equally reputable.