The Politics of Aristotle

by Aristotle

  33 · In the island of Tenos they say there is a small bowl containing a mixture, from which people kindle fire very readily. Moreover in the Thracian Bithynia there is found in the mines the stone which is called ‘the chaffinch’ from [30] which they say that fire is kindled.

  34 · People say that in the island of Lipara there is a certain place where the air is sucked down into the earth, and that if they bury a pot there they can put in it whatever they please and boil it.

  [833a1] 35 · Both in Media and in Psittacene, a district of Persia, there are fires burning, that in Media small, but that in Psittacene large and with a bright flame; for which reason also the King of the Persians constructed kitchens near it. Both [5] these are in level, not in elevated places. These fires are conspicuous both by night and by day, while those in Pamphylia are seen only at night.

  36 · They say also that at Atitania, near the borders of the district of Apollonia, there is a certain rock, and fire rising from it is not visible, but whenever [10] oil is poured on it it blazes up.

  37 · It is said that the places outside the Pillars of Hercules burn, some constantly, others at night only, as Hanno’s Circumnavigation relates. The fire also in Lipara is visible and flaming, yet not by day, but only at night. They say also that [15] in Pithecusae the ground is fiery, and extraordinarily hot, yet not burning.

  38 · Xenophanes states that the fire in Lipara once failed for sixteen years, but returned in the seventeenth year. They say that the lava-stream in Etna is neither flaming nor continuous, but returns only after an interval of many years.

  [20] 39 · It is said that in Lydia a vast amount of fire blazed up, and continued burning for seven days.

  40 · The lava-stream in Sicily is an extraordinary phenomenon. The breadth of the fire that blazes up amounts to forty stadia, while the height to which it is carried amounts to three.

  41 · They say that the stone in Thrace which is called ‘the chaffinch’ burns [25] when split in two, and that it also, like charcoal-embers, when put together again, and sprinkled with water, burns; and that the stone called ‘marieus’ does the same.

  42 · At Philippi in Macedonia they state that there are mines, the refuse from which, they say, increases and produces gold, and that this is an observable fact.

  43 · They say that in Cyprus, at the place called Tyrrhias, copper is [833b1] produced in like manner; for men having cut it up, as it appears, into small pieces, sow it, and then, when the rains have come on, it grows and springs up, and so is collected.

  44 · They say that in the island of Melos, in those parts of the ground that are dug up, the earth fills itself up again. [5]

  45 · In Paeonia they state that when continuous showers have fallen, and the ground is thoroughly soaked, there is found what is called gold without fire. They state, too, that in Paeonia the ground is so rich in gold that many persons have found gold even exceeding a pound in weight. And they say that certain persons, who had [10] found them, brought two nuggets to the king, one weighing three pounds, the other five; and they say that these are set beside him on the table, and, if he eats anything, he first offers a libation upon them.

  46 · They say that among the Bactrians also the river Oxus carries down numerous small nuggets of gold, and moreover that in Iberia the river called [15] Theodorus both throws out much gold on its banks, and likewise also carries it down the stream.

  47 · They state also that in Pieria, a district of Macedonia, some uncoined gold was buried by the ancient kings, and, while there were four cavities, from one [20] of them gold grew up a span in length.

  48 · It is said that the production of the Chalybian and Amisenian iron is very peculiar; for it grows together, as at least they assert, from the sand that is carried down by the rivers. Some say that they simply wash this, and smelt it in a [25] furnace; but others that, after frequently washing the deposit left by the first washing, they burn it, and insert what is called the fire-proof stone which is abundant in the country. This iron is far more beautiful than the other kinds. But if [30] it were not burnt in the furnace it would not at all differ, as it appears, from silver. Now they say that it alone is not liable to rust, but that it is not very plentiful.

  [834a1] 49 · They say also that among the Indians the copper is so bright, pure, and free from rust that it cannot be distinguished in colour from gold; moreover that among the cups of Darius there are certain goblets, and these not inconsiderable in [5] number, as to which, except by their smell, one could not otherwise decide whether they are of copper or gold.

  50 · They say that Celtic tin melts much more quickly than lead. A proof of its fusibility is that it is believed to melt even in water: at any rate, it seems, it stains [10] quickly. Now it melts in the cold also, when the weather is frosty, because, as they say, the hot substance inherent in it is by reason of its weakness shut up and compressed within.

  51 · In the Pantheon there is an olive-tree, which is called that ‘of the beautiful crowns’. But all its leaves are contrary in appearance to those of other [15] olive-trees; for it has the pale-green outside, instead of inside, and it sends forth branches, like those of the myrtle, suitable for crowns. From this Heracles took a shoot, and planted it at Olympia, and from it are taken the crowns which are given to the competitors. This tree is near the river Ilissus, sixty stadia distant from the [20] river. It is surrounded by a wall, and a severe penalty is imposed on any one who touches it. From this the Eleians took the shoot, and planted it in Olympia, and from it they took the crowns which they bestowed.

  52 · In the Lydian mines near Pergamos, which also Croesus had worked, [25] the following incident occurred. When a certain war arose the workmen fled to them; but, as the mouth was built up, they were suffocated; and a long time afterwards, when the mines were cleared out, vessels, which they used to employ for [30] daily uses, such as jars and the like, were found petrified. These, being filled with whatever liquid it might be, had been turned to stone, as well as the bones of the men.

  53 · In the Ascanian lake the water is so impregnated with soda that garments have need of no other detergent; if one leaves them too long in the water they fall to pieces.

  54 · Near the Ascanian lake is Pythopolis, a village about one hundred and twenty stadia distant from Cius, in which all the wells are dried up in the winter, so [834b1] that one cannot dip a pitcher into them; but in the summer they are filled up to the brim.

  55 · The strait between Sicily and Italy increases and diminishes along with the changes of the moon.

  [5] 56 · On the road to Syracuse there is in a meadow a spring, neither large nor containing much water; but, when once a great crowd met at the place, it supplied water in abundance.

  57 · There is also a certain spring in Palici in Sicily, about as large as the space ten couches would occupy. This throws up water to the height of six cubits, so that it is thought by those who see it that the plain will be inundated; and again it [10] returns to its original state. There is also a form of oath, which is considered to be sacred there; whatever oaths a man swears he writes on a little tablet, and throws into the water. If therefore he swears truly, the tablet floats on the top; but if he swears falsely, they say that the tablet grows heavy and disappears, while the man is [15] burnt. That is why the priest takes security from him that some one shall purify the temple.

  58 · Demonesus, the island of the Chalcedonians, received its name from Demonesus, who first cultivated it. The place contains the mine of cyanos and [20] gold-solder. Of this latter the finest sort is worth its weight in gold, for it is also a remedy for the eyes. In the same place there is also copper, obtained by divers, two fathoms below the surface of the sea, from which was made the statue in Sicyon in the ancient temple of Apollo, and in Pheneus the so-called statues of mountaincopper. On these is the inscription—‘Heracles, son of Amphitryon, having captured [25] Elis, dedicated them’. Now he captured Elis guided, in accordance with an oracle, by a woman, whose father, Augeas, he had
slain. Those who dig the copper become very sharp-sighted, and those who have no eyelashes grow them: that is why also physicians use the flower of copper and Phrygian ashes for the eyes. [30]

  59 · Now in the same place there is a cave which is called the pretty cave. In this pillars have been formed by congelation from certain drippings of water: and this is evident at the point where they join the ground, for the narrowest part is there.

  60 · Of the offspring of a pair of eagles, so long as they pair together, every second one is a sea-eagle. Now from the sea-eagles springs an osprey, and from [835a1] these black eagles and vultures: yet these on the other hand do not bring the breed of vultures to a close, but produce the great vultures, and these are barren. And a proof [5] is this, that no one has ever seen a nest of a great vulture.

  61 · A wonderful thing they say happens among the Indians with regard to the lead there; for when it has been melted and poured into cold water it jumps out of the water.

  62 · Men say that the copper of the Mossynoeci is very brilliant and white, [10] no tin being mixed with it; but there is a kind of earth there, which is smelted with it. They state that the man who discovered the mixture did not inform any one; so the copper vessels formerly produced in these parts were excellent, but those subsequently made were no longer so.

  63 · Men state that in Pontus some birds during the winter are found lurking [15] in holes, and not discharging excrement, and when people pluck out their feathers they do not feel it, nor yet when they are pierced on a spit, but only when they have been burnt through with fire. They say that many fishes also, when trimmed and cut [20] round, have no perception of it, but only when they have been warmed through by fire.

  64 · The bee is thought to announce the solstices by going to its labours, [25] which the bee-keepers also use as a sign, for then they have rest. The grasshoppers also appear to chirp only after the solstices.

  65 · They say also that the hedgehog continues without food for a year.

  66 · It is said that the spotted lizard, when it has stripped off its slough, like snakes, turns round and swallows it, because physicians look out for it, from its being serviceable to those who suffer from epilepsy.

  [30] 67 · Men state also that the fat of the bear, when it has been congealed owing to the winter, increases as long as the bear lies hidden in its den, and overflows the vessels in which it is kept.

  68 · They say that the frogs in Cyrene are altogether dumb, and that in Macedonia, in the country of the Emathiotae, the swine have solid hoofs.

  [835b1] 69 · They say that in Cappadocia there are fertile mules, and in Crete black poplars which yield fruit.

  70 · They say also that in Seriphos the frogs do not croak; but if they are transferred to another place they croak.

  [5] 71 · Among the Indians, in what is called the Horn, it is stated that there are little fishes, which wander about on the dry land, and run away again into the river.

  72 · Some say also that in the neighbourhood of Babylon certain fishes remain in the holes, which contain moisture, while the river is drying up; that they [10] go out to the threshing-floors and feed, and walk upon their fins, and move the tail to and fro, and when they are pursued they flee, enter into their holes, and stand facing their pursuer; for people often approach and tease them. Their head is like that of the sea-frog, while the rest of the body resembles that of the gudgeon, and they have gills like other fishes.

  [15] 73 · At Heraclea in Pontus, and in Rhegium, they say there are fish obtained by digging, especially in places near rivers, and such as are well watered; and that it sometimes happens that when these places dry up at certain seasons, the fish shrink under the earth, and then when this dries up still more, they, in search of humidity, enter into the mud; then when this becomes dry, they remain in the [20] moisture, like animals which continue in their holes; but, when they are dug up before the waters come on, they then move.

  74 · They say also that in Paphlagonia the fish obtained by digging are met with deep in the ground, and that these are of an excellent quality, though neither is [25] water to be seen close at hand, nor do rivers flow into the place; the earth engenders them of itself.

  75 · Men say that the stags in Epirus bury their right horn, when they have shed it, and that this is useful for many purposes.

  76 · They say that the lynx too covers up its urine, because of its being useful [30] for signet-rings as well as for other things.

  77 · They also state that the seal, when taken, vomits out rennet, and that this is medicinal and serviceable to those who suffer from epilepsy.

  78 · It is said that on the Circaean mountain in Italy there grows a deadly poison, which is so potent that, if it be sprinkled on any one, it straightway causes [836a1] him to fall, and the hairs of his body to drop off, and generally the limbs of his body to waste away, so that the surface of the body of those who are dying is a pitiable sight. They say too that Aulus the Peucestian and Gaius were detected when about to administer this poison to Cleonymus the Spartan, and that having been examined [5] they were put to death by the Tarentines.

  79 · In the island of Diomedeia, which lies in the Adriatic, they say there is a temple of Diomedes, wonderful and holy, and round the temple there sit in a circle birds of a large size, having great hard beaks. These birds, they state, if Greeks land [10] at the place, keep quiet; but if any of the barbarians who live around them approach, they fly up, and soaring in the air swoop down upon their heads, and, wounding them with their beaks, kill them. The story goes that the companions of [15] Diomedes were metamorphosed into these, when they had been shipwrecked off the island and Diomedes was treacherously slain by Aeneas, who was then king of those regions.

  80 · Among the Umbrians they say that the cattle bring forth young three [20] times in a year, and that the earth yields many times more fruit than the seed that is sown: that the women also are prolific, and rarely bring forth only one child at a time, but most of them have two or three.

  81 · In the Amber islands, which are situated in the corner of the Adriatic, [25] they say that there are two statues erected, the one of tin, the other of bronze, wrought after the ancient fashion. It is stated that these are works of Daedalus, a memorial of old times, when he, fleeing before Minos from Sicily and Crete, put in [30] to these places. But they say that the river Eridanus formed these islands by alluvial deposit. Moreover, as it appears, there is near the river a lake, containing hot water, and a smell exhales from it heavy and unpleasant, and neither does any animal [836b1] drink from it, nor does a bird fly over it, but falls and dies. It has a circumference of two hundred stadia, a width of about ten. Now the inhabitants tell the story that Phaethon, when struck by the thunderbolt, fell into this lake; and that therein are many black poplars, from which falls what is called amber. This, they say, [5] resembles gum, and hardens like a stone, and, when collected by the inhabitants, is carried over to the Greeks. To these islands, therefore, they state that Daedalus came, and, having obtained possession of them, dedicated in one of them his own [10] statue, and in the other that of his son Icarus; but that afterwards, when the Pelasgians, who had been expelled from Argos, sailed against them, Daedalus fled, and arrived at the island of Icarus.

  [15] 82 · In Sicily, in the neighbourhood of the place called Enna, there is said to be a cave, round about which they assert that there not only grows a quantity of other kinds of flowers at every season of the year, but that especially an immense space is covered with violets, which fill the adjoining country with fragrance, so that the huntsmen are unable to track the hares, as their dogs are overcome by the smell. [20] Through this chasm there is an invisible subterranean passage, by which they say Pluto carried off Proserpine. In this place it is said that wheat is found, resembling neither the native sorts, which people use, nor other kinds that are imported, but possessed of a great peculiarity. And this they use as an argument to prove that the [25] wheat-fruit appeared first among themselves; whence also they la
y claim to Demeter, affirming that the goddess was born among them.

  83 · In Crete men say that there are no wolves, bears, and vipers, and similarly no wild beasts like them, because Zeus was born there.

  [30] 84 · In the sea outside the Pillars of Hercules they say that an island was discovered by the Carthaginians, desolate, having wood of every kind, and navigable rivers, and admirable for its fruits besides, but distant several days’ [837a1] voyage from them. But, when the Carthaginians often came to this island because of its fertility, and some even dwelt there, the magistrates of the Carthaginians gave notice that they would punish with death those who should sail to it, and destroyed all the inhabitants, lest they should spread a report about it, or a large number [5] might gather together to the island in their time,1 get possession of the authority, and destroy the prosperity of the Carthaginians.

  85 · From Italy as far as the country of the Celts, Celtoligurians, and Iberians, they say there is a certain road, called the ‘road of Heracles’, by which [10] whether a Greek or a native travels, he is watched by the neighbouring tribes, so that he may receive no injury; for those among whom the injury has been done must pay the penalty.

  86 · They say that among the Celts there is a poison called by them ‘arrow-poison’, which they assert produces corruption so quickly that the Celtic huntsmen, when they have shot a stag, or any other animal, run up to it in haste, and [15] cut out the wounded part of the flesh, before the poison spreads, as well for the sake of the food as to prevent the animal from putrefying. They say, however, that the bark of the oak was found to be an antidote for this; but others maintain that the antidote is something different, a leaf, which they call ravenswort, because a raven, [20] which had tasted the poison, and become sick, was observed by them to hasten for this leaf, and, after devouring it, to be delivered from its pain.