Unfair

by Adam Benforado

  8. UMPIRES OR ACTIVISTS? ~ THE JUDGE

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  “After Sending a Man to Prison, Judge Admits He Was Biased.” NPR, June 14, 2014. http://www.npr.org/​2014/06/14/​321952967/after​-sending-a-man-to-prison-​judge-admits-he-was-biased.

  American Bar Association. “Most Americans See ‘Judicial Activism’ Crisis.” WND, September 20, 2005. http://www.​wnd.com/​2005/09/32620/.

  Anderson, Kyle J., and David A. Pierce. “Officiating Bias: The Effect of Foul Differential on Foul Calls in NCAA Basketball.” Journal of Sports Sciences 27 (2009): 687–94.

  Askins, Robert L. “The Official Reacting to Pressure.” Referee 3 (1978): 17–20.

  Baker, Peter, and Neil A. Lewis. “Republicans Press Judge About Bias.” New York Times, July 14, 2009.

  Beck, Howard, and Michael S. Schmidt. “N.B.A. Referee Pleads Guilty to Gambling Charges.” New York Times, August 16, 2007.

  Benforado, Adam. “Color Commentators of the Bench.” Florida State University Law Review 38 (2011): 451–79.

  Berdejo, Carlos, and Noam M. Yuchtman. “Crime, Punishment, and Politics: An Analysis of Political Cycles in Criminal Sentencing.” Review of Economics and Statistics 95, no. 3 (2013): 741–56.

  Birnbaum, Phil. “A Guide to Sabermetric Research.” Society for American Baseball Research. Accessed November 7, 2014. http://sabr.org/​sabermetrics.

  Bombardieri, Marcella, Jonathan Saltzman, and Thomas Farragher. “For Drunk Drivers, a Habit of Judicial Leniency.” Boston Globe, October 30, 2011.

  Boyd, Christina L., Lee Epstein, and Andrew D. Martin. “Untangling the Causal Effects of Sex on Judging.” American Journal of Political Science 54 (2010): 389–411.

  Canes-Wrone, Brandice, Tom S. Clark, and Jason P. Kelly. “Judicial Selection and Death Penalty Decisions.” American Political Science Review 108, no. 1 (2014): 23–39.

  Casarez, Jean. “Did Racial Bias Lead NYC Judge to Convict Man of Murder?” CNN.com, August 7, 2014. http://www.cnn.com/​2014/08/06​/justice/new-york-murder-conviction-revisited/.

  Cinquegrana, R. J., and Diana K. Lloyd. Report to the Supreme Judicial Court. Boston: Choate, Hall & Stewart LLP, 2012.

  Confirmation Hearing on the Nomination of Elena Kagan to Be an Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States. Before the Comm. on the Judiciary, 111th Cong. (2010).

  Confirmation Hearing on the Nomination of Hon. Sonia Sotomayor, to Be an Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States. Before the Comm. on the Judiciary, 109th Cong. (2009).

  Confirmation Hearing on the Nomination of John G. Roberts, Jr. to Be Chief Justice of the United States. Before the Comm. on the Judiciary, 109th Cong. (2005).

  Confirmation Hearing on the Nomination of Robert H. Bork to Be Associate Justice of the United States. Before the Comm. on the Judiciary, 100th Cong. (1987).

  Confirmation Hearing on the Nomination of Samuel A. Alito, Jr. to Be an Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States. Before the Comm. on the Judiciary, 109th Cong. (2006).

  “Congressional Baseball Game 2012: Political Wounds Still Fresh.” CBS News, June 29, 2012. http://www.cbsnews​.com/​8334-503544_162-57463434-503544​/congressional-baseball-​game-2012-political-wounds-still-fresh/.

  Danziger, Shai, Jonathan Levav, and Liora Avnaim-Pesso. “Extraneous Factors in Judicial Decisions.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 108, no. 17 (2010): 6889–92.

  Danziger, Shai, Jonathan Levav, and Liora Avnaim-Pesso. “Reply to Weinshall-Margel and Shapard: Extraneous Factors in Judicial Decisions Persist.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 108, no. 42 (2010): E834.

  Dawson, Peter, Stephen Dobson, John Goddard, and John Wilson. “Are Football Referees Really Biased and Inconsistent? Evidence of the Incidence of Disciplinary Sanction in the English Premier League.” Journal of the Royal Statistical Society: Series A 170 (2007): 231–50.

  “Drexel University School of Law Student Handbook: Academic Year 2013–2014.” http://drexel.edu/​law/studentLife/studentAffairs​/Student%20Handbook/.

  Englich, Brite, Thomas Mussweiler, and Fritz Strack. “Playing Dice with Criminal Sentences: The Influence of Irrelevant Anchors on Experts’ Judicial Decision Making.” Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 32 (2006): 188–200.

  “Failure of Empathy and Justice.” New York Times, March 31, 2011.

  Fleming, Stephen M., Charlotte L. Thomas, and Raymond J. Dolan. “Overcoming Status Quo Bias in the Human Brain.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 107, no. 13 (2009): 6005–9.

  Fraga, Brian. “Nearly Two Dozen State Judges Acquit 95 Percent of OUI Defendants in Bench Trials, Report States.” Herald News (Fall River, MA), November 1, 2012.

  Frank, Jerome. Law and the Modern Mind. New York: Brentano’s, 1930.

  Garicano, Luis, Ignacio Palacios-Huerta, and Canice Prendergast. “Favoritism Under Social Pressure.” Review of Economics and Statistics 87 (2005): 208–16.

  Glynn, Adam N., and Maya Sen. “Identifying Judicial Empathy: Does Having Daughters Cause Judges to Rule for Women’s Issues?” American Journal of Political Science (2014): 1–18.

  Greely, Henry T., and Anthony D. Wagner. “Reference Guide on Scientific Evidence.” In Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence, 3rd ed. Washington, DC: National Academies Press, 2011.

  Greenhouse, Linda. “Evolving Opinions: Heartfelt Words from the Rehnquist Court.” New York Times, July 6, 2013.

  Guthrie, Chris, Jeffrey J. Rachlinski, and Andrew J. Wistrich. “Blinking on the Bench: How Judges Decide Cases.” Cornell Law Review 93 (2007): 1–44.

  Guthrie, Chris, Jeffrey J. Rachlinski, and Andrew J. Wistrich. “Inside the Judicial Mind.” Cornell Law Review 86 (2001): 777–830.

  Hagemann, Norbert, Bernd Strauss, and Jan Leibing. “When the Referee Sees Red.” Psychological Science 19 (2008): 769–71.

  Hall, Erika, and Robert Livingston. “The Hubris Penalty.” Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 48 (2012): 899–904.

  Hunt, Albert R. “Washington Flip Flops on Justice Roberts.” New York Times, July 1, 2012.

  Iaryczower, Matias, Garrett Lewis, and Matthew Shum. “To Elect or to Appoint? Bias, Information, and Responsiveness of Bureaucrats and Politicians.” Journal of Public Economics 97 (2013): 230–44.

  Irwin, John, and Daniel Real. “Unconscious Influences on Judicial Decision-Making: The Illusion of Objectivity.” McGeorge Law Review 43 (2010): 1–18.

  James, Bill. “Keynote Speech at the Conference on Empirical Studies.” University of Pennsylvania Law School, Philadelphia, PA, October 25, 2013.

  Jost, Kenneth. “Roberts’ Confirmation Hearings Conclude.” NPR, September 15, 2005. http://www.npr.org/​templates/story​/story.php?storyId=4850135.

  Jost, Kenneth. “Roberts Says He Has ‘No Agenda’ on Bench.” NPR, September 12, 2005. http://www.npr.org/​templates/story​/story.php?storyId=4843769.

  Kahan, Dan M., Ellen Peters, Erica Cantrell Dawson, and Paul Slovic. “Motivated Numeracy and Enlightened Self-Government.” The Cultural Cognition Project Working Paper No. 116 (2013).

  Kastellec, Jonathan P. “Racial Diversity and Judicial Influence on Appellate Courts.” American Journal of Political Science 57 (2013): 167–83.

  Klein, Ezra. “Unpopular Mandate.” New Yorker, June 25, 2012.

  Kranjec, Alexander, Matthew Lehet, Bianca Bromberger, and Anjan Chatterjee. “A Sinister Bias for Calling Fouls in Soccer.” PLOS ONE 5 (2010): 1–4.

  Kyllo v. United States. 533 U.S. 27 (2001).

  Landsman, Stephan, and Richard F. Rakos. “A Preliminary Inquiry into the Effect of Potentially Biasing Information on Judges and Jurors in Civil Litigation.” Behavioral Sc
iences and the Law 12 (1994): 113–26.

  Larsen, Allison Orr. “Confronting Supreme Court Fact Finding.” Virginia Law Review 98 (2012): 1255–1312.

  Larsen, Allison Orr. “The Trouble with Amicus Facts,” Virginia Law Review 100 (2014): 1757–1818.

  Lichtblau, Eric. “Advocacy Group Says Justices May Have Conflict in Campaign Finance Cases.” New York Times, January 19, 2011.

  Lichtblau, Eric. “Thomas Cites Failure to Disclose Wife’s Job.” New York Times, January 24, 2011.

  Liptak, Adam. “Another Factor Said to Sway Judges to Rule for Women’s Rights: A Daughter.” New York Times, June 16, 2014.

  Liptak, Adam. “Harsher Sentencing Guidelines Can’t Be Used for Old Offenses, Justices Say.” New York Times, June 10, 2013.

  Liptak, Adam. “Seeking Facts, Justices Settle for What Briefs Tell Them.” New York Times, September 1, 2014.

  Liptak, Adam, and Allison Kopicki. “Approval Rating for Justices Hits Just 44% in New Poll.” New York Times, June 7, 2012.

  Mauro, Tony, and David Ingram. “The Sotomayor Confirmation Hearings: Sotomayor Pledges ‘Fidelity to the Law.’ ” National Law Journal, July 13, 2009.

  McKinley, James C., Jr. “Ex-Brooklyn Judge Seeks Reversal of His Verdict in 1999 Murder Case.” New York Times, December 12, 2013.

  McKinley, James C., Jr. “Prosecutor Questions Ex-Judge’s Memory.” New York Times, February 10, 2014.

  “The Mechanisms of Choice.” Observer 25, no. 1 (2012). http://www.psychologicalscience.org/​index.php​/publications/​observer/2012/january​-12/the-mechanics-of-choice.html.

  Miller, S. A. “Kagan O’Care Bias Feared.” New York Post, November 16, 2011.

  Moskowitz, Tobias J., and L. Jon Wertheim. Scorecasting: The Hidden Influences Behind How Sports Are Played and Games Are Won. New York: Crown Archetype, 2011.

  “MTA Fixing Trippy Brooklyn Subway Stairs After Dean Peterson’s Hilarious Viral Video.” Huffington Post, June 28, 2012. http://www.huffingtonpost.com/​2012/06​/28/mta-fixing-trippy​-brooklyn-subway-stairs-dean-peterson_n_1634229​.html.

  Nelson, William E., Harvey Rishikof, I. Scott Messinger, and Michael Jo. “The Liberal Tradition of the Supreme Court Clerkship: Its Rise, Fall, and Reincarnation.” Vanderbilt Law Review 62 (2009): 1749–1814.

  “The Next Chief Justice.” New York Daily News, September 16, 2005.

  O’Brien, Keith. “Do the Math? Only if I Agree with It!” Boston Globe, October 20, 2013.

  Pariser, Eli. The Filter Bubble. New York: Penguin, 2011.

  Peterson, Dean. “New York Subway Stairs Gag: Dean Peterson Films Straphangers Enjoying Their ‘Trip’ (Video).” Huffington Post, July 5, 2012. http://www.huffingtonpost.com/​2012/06/​27/new-york-subway​-stairs-dean-paterson_n_1631674.html?utm_hp_ref=new-york.

  Pew Research Center for the People and the Press. “Supreme Court’s Favorable Rating Still at Historical Low.” March 25, 2013. http://www.people-press.org/​2013/03/​25/supreme-courts​-favorable-rating-still-at-historic-low/.

  Posner, Richard A. “The Incoherence of Antonin Scalia.” New Republic, August 24, 2012. http://www.tnr.com/​article/magazine/books-and-arts​/106441/scalia-garner-reading​-the-law-textual​-originalism?page=0,0.

  Price, Joseph, and Justin Wolfers. “Biased Referees? Reconciling Results with the NBA’s Analysis.” Contemporary Economic Policy 30, no. 3 (2011): 320–28.

  Pullman, Sandra. “Ginsburg and WRP Staff.” ACLU, March 7, 2006. http://www.aclu.org/​womens-rights/​tributeTegacy-ruth-​bader-ginsburg-and-wrp-staff.

  Rachlinski, Jeffrey J., Sheri Lynn Johnson, Andrew J. Wistrich, and Chris Guthrie. “Does Unconscious Racial Bias Affect Trial Judges?” Notre Dame Law Review 84 (2009): 1195–1246.

  “Researchers Find Appointed Justices Outperform Elected Counterparts.” ScienceDaily, February 22, 2013. http://www.sciencedaily.com/​releases/2013​/02/130222121049.htm.

  Roberts, Roxanne, and Amy Argetsinger. “A Truly Exclusive Washington Party: Antonin Scalia Hosts Justices to Toast New Henry Friendly Bio.” Washington Post, May 1, 2012.

  Rothman, Josh. “Supreme Court Justices: Addicted to Google.” Boston Globe, June 7, 2012.

  Rowland, C. K., and Bridget Jeffery Todd. “Where You Stand Depends on Who Sits: Platform Promises and Judicial Gatekeeping in the Federal District Courts.” Journal of Politics 53, no. 1 (1995): 175–85.

  Saltzman, Jonathan, Marcella Bombardieri, and Thomas Farragher. “A Judicial Haven for Accused Drunk Drivers.” Boston Globe, November 6, 2011.

  Samuels, Dorothy J. “Scalia’s Gay Marriage Problem.” New York Times, March 15, 2013.

  Scalia, Antonin, and Bryan A. Garner. Interview by Stephen Adler. Thompson Reuters Newsmaker, September 17, 2012.

  Schwartz, Robert. “Like They See ’Em.” New York Times, October 6, 2005.

  Senior, Jennifer. “In Conversation: Antonin Scalia.” New York, October 6, 2013.

  Simonsohn, Uri, and Francesca Gino. “Daily Horizons: Evidence of Narrow Bracketing in Judgment From 10 Years of M.B.A. Admissions Interviews.” Psychological Science 24 (2013): 219–41.

  Smelcer, Susan Navarro. Supreme Court Justices: Demographic Characteristics, Professional Experience, and Legal Education, 1789–2010. CRS Report R40802. Washington, DC: Library of Congress, Congressional Research Service. April 9, 2010.

  Sotomayor, Sonia. “A Latina Judge’s Voice.” Berkeley La Raza Law Journal 13 (2002): 87–92.

  Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. “Feminist Philosophy of Law.” May 19, 2009. http://plato.​stanford.edu/​entries/​feminism-law/.

  Statement of the Justices of the Supreme Judicial Court. November 1, 2012.

  “Stern: Bet Probe ‘Worst Situation That I Have Ever Experienced.” ESPN.com, July 25, 2007. http://sports.espn.go.com/​nba/news​/story?id=2947237.

  Stevenson, Richard W. “President Names Roberts as Choice for Chief Justice.” New York Times, September 6, 2005.

  Sunstein, Cass R. “Judicial Partisanship Awards.” Washington Independent, July 31, 2008.

  Sunstein, Cass R., and Thomas Miles. “Depoliticizing Administrative Law.” Duke Law Journal 58 (2008): 2193–2230.

  Supreme Court of the United States. “Biographies of Current Justices of the Supreme Court.” http://www.supremecourt.gov/​about/​biographies.aspx.

  Sutter, Matthias, and Martin G. Kocher. “Favoritism of Agents: The Case of Referees’ Home Bias.” Journal of Economic Psychology 25 (2004): 461–69.

  Tierney, John. “Do You Suffer from Decision Fatigue?” New York Times, August 17, 2011.

  Torres-Spelliscy, Ciara, Monique Chase, Emma Greenman, and Susan M. Liss. “Improving Judicial Diversity.” Brennan Center for Justice, 2010. http://www.​brennancenter.org/​publication/improving​-judicial-diversity.

  Totenberg, Nina. “Robert Bork’s Supreme Court Nomination ‘Changed Everything, Maybe Forever.’ ” NPR, March 19, 2012. http://www.npr.org/​blogs/itsallpolitics​/2012/12/19​/167645600/robert-borks​-supreme-court-nomination​-changed-everything-maybe-forever.

  Tur, Katy. “MTA Blocks Staircase After Viral Video Shows People Tripping on Same Subway Station Step.” NBC.com, June 29, 2012. http://www.nbcnewyork.com/​news/local​/Subway-Stair-Tripping-People​-Fall-Steps-Brooklyn​-Station-36-Street-Sunset-Park-MTA-160629545.html.

  Tversky, Amos, and Daniel Kahneman. “Judgment Under Uncertainty: Heuristics and Biases.” Science 185 (1974): 1124–31.

  United States Courts. “Code of Conduct for United States Judges.” Last revised March 20, 2014. http://www.uscourts.gov/​RulesAndPolicies/​CodesOfConduct/CodeConductUnitedStatesJudges.aspx.

  United States Courts. “Judicial Conference Regulations: Gifts.” http://www.uscourts.gov/​RulesAndPolicies/​CodesOfConduct/JudicialConferenceRegulationsGifts.aspx.

  United States Senate Committee on the Judiciary. “Nomination of John G. Roberts.” http://www.judiciary.senate.gov/​meetings/nomination​-of-john-g-roberts.

  United S
tates v. Booker. 543 U.S. 220 (2005).

  United States v. Jones. 132 S. Ct. 945 (2012).

  United States v. Sykes. 131 S. Ct. 2267 (2011).

  U.S. Const. amend. IV.

  Vallone, Robert P., Lee Ross, and Mark R. Lepper. “The Hostile Media Phenomenon: Biased Perception and Perceptions of Media Bias in Coverage of the Beirut Massacre.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 49, no. 3 (1985): 577–85.

  Van Quaquebeke, Niels, and Steffen R. Giessner. “How Embodied Cognitions Affect Judgments: Height-Related Attribution Bias in Football Foul Calls.” Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology 32 (2010): 3–22.

  Weber, Bruce. “Umpires v. Judges.” New York Times, July 11, 2009.

  Weinshall-Margel, Keren, and John Shapard. “Overlooked Factors in the Analysis of Parole Decisions.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 108, no. 2 (2011): E833.

  Whitney, David, Nicole Wurnitsch, Byron Hontiveros, and Elizabeth Louie. “Perceptual Mislocalization of Bouncing Balls by Professional Tennis Referees.” Current Biology 18 (2008): R947–49.

  Wistrich, Andrew J., Chris Guthrie, and Jeffrey J. Rachlinski. “Can Judges Ignore Inadmissible Information? The Difficulty of Deliberately Disregarding.” University of Pennsylvania Law Review 153 (2005): 1251–1345.

  Zelinsky, Aaron S. J. “The Justice as Commissioner: Benching the Judge-Umpire Analogy.” Yale Law Journal 199 (2010): 113.

  9. AN EYE FOR AN EYE ~ THE PUBLIC

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  Aharoni, Eyal, and Alan J. Fridlund. “Punishment Without Reason: Isolating Retribution in Lay Punishment of Criminal Offenders.” Psychology, Public Policy, and Law 18, no. 4 (2012): 599–625.

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