Washington traveled to Philadelphia to become a member of the Constitutional Convention. There, the delegates picked him to chair the convention. Washington believed that the president of the convention should remain neutral, so he participated little in the debates, mostly listening to what the others had to say.
Within five months, the delegates were done. Instead of a revising the Articles, they created a brand new document, the Constitution of the United States.
President George Washington (1789–1797)
After a lengthy battle to ratify the Constitution, the country was ready to elect a president in 1788. It was a forgone conclusion that Washington would win. The only suspense was over who would win the vice-presidency. Washington was pleased when the Electoral College selected his friend John Adams for the position.
The Electoral College, following the guidelines outlined in the Constitution, chose the new president on February 4, 1789. (For a detailed discussion of the Electoral College, see the sidebar with that name in Chapter 1). In April 1789, Washington, shown in Figure 3-2, became the first president of the United States.
Figure 3-2: George Washington, 1st presi-dent of the United States (1789–1797).
Courtesy of the Library of Congress
Dealing with the Issues of the Day
One of the first decisions Washington faced as president was where to set up the new capital. He moved the seat of the new government from New York to Philadelphia.
Setting inaugural precedents
As the first president of the United States, George Washington was in the unique position of being able to establish many of the traditions we take for granted today. The only constitutional requirement for inaugural procedures is that the new president recite the following presidential oath: “I do solemnly swear that I will faithfully execute the office of president of the United States, and will to the best of my ability preserve, protect, and defend the Constitution of the United States.”
As the first president of the United States, Washington established many of the traditions surrounding inaugurations today. With the Constitution silent on the issue, it was left up to Washington to set precedent. Some of the traditions Washington started are
The custom of swearing the presidential oath with the left hand on the Bible and the right hand raised to heaven
Saying “So help me God” at the end of the oath
An inaugural celebration (in his case, fireworks)
Attending an inaugural ball given in his honor
From the presentation of an inaugural address to the festivities surrounding it, Washington set the tone for generations to come.
But Philadelphia wasn’t a popular choice: The southern states wanted the capital to be closer to the South, while Alexander Hamilton preferred for the new government to be as far away as possible from the U.S. public so politicians could make policy without public interference. A compromise was struck, and all sides agreed to build a new capital on the Potomac River at what is now Washington, D.C. Construction started soon after the location was agreed on, and it was finished by 1800. John Adams was the first U.S. president to live in the new capital, and he hated it.
Adding the Bill of Rights
The first ten amendments to the Constitution are referred to as the Bill of Rights. They contain some of the most important civil liberties granted to U.S. citizens by the Constitution. Among the more important rights guaranteed by the Bill of Rights are the following:
Freedom of speech, religion, press, and assembly
The right to bear arms
The requirement of search warrants for searches of homes and other places
The prohibition of double jeopardy (being tried twice for the same crime)
The right to have a lawyer present at a trial
The requirement that an accused person be informed of the charges against him or her
The prohibition of cruel and unusual punishment
For the complete text of the Declaration of Independence, the Constitution, and the Bill of Rights and the other amendments along with explanations and commentary, check out Webster’s New World American Words of Freedom by Stephen Rohde, published by Hungry Minds, Inc.
Passing the Bill of Rights
When Washington assumed the presidency in 1789, his first order of business was to make sure that a Bill of Rights was added to the Constitution. During the debate over ratification, the opponents of the Constitution (also referred to as Anti-Federalists) pressed for the addition of a Bill of Rights to ensure individual freedoms, and Washington and his supporters agreed to it. So when Congress met in 1790, the first action they took was to add to the Constitution. In 1791, Congress and the states added the first ten amendments to the Constitution, also known as the Bill of Rights.
Article 5 of the Constitution spells out how a constitutional amendment can be added. The amendment has to be proposed, and then it has to be ratified. There are two ways to propose an amendment. First, both houses of Congress can propose an amendment with a two-thirds vote in each chamber. Second, an amendment can be proposed if two-thirds of all state legislatures call upon Congress to hold a national convention to propose an amendment. This type of proposal has never been used. To ratify an amendment after it has been proposed, three-fourth of all state legislatures have to approve it. Up to this point, only 27 amendments have been added to the Constitution.
Splitting into two parties
By 1790, the advantages of a new stronger federal government over the system set out in the Articles of Confederation became visible. The federal government now had the power to levy duties on imports, which proved to be a major source of income.
With Alexander Hamilton heading the treasury, money started to flow in, and the federal government was able to repay the war bonds that were issued to finance the war of independence. More importantly, money was finally available to support a better military force, which proved to be vital in the wars against several Native American tribes in the western part of the United States (what was then Ohio). In 1795, the border conflicts with the Native American tribes were resolved with the Treaty of Greenville.
The first party system
Rivalry between Alexander Hamilton and Thomas Jefferson gave the United States its first party system by 1794.
Alexander Hamilton and his supporters called themselves Federalists. The Federalists supported some specific views on how the government should be run:
They advocated a stronger national government, which would result in a weakening of states’ rights.
They advocated an active role for government in the area of economic development.
They favored high tariffs, or duties on imports, to protect U.S. industries from foreign competition.
When it came to foreign policy, they were closer to Great Britain than they were to France. (France and Great Britain were at war at the time.)
Thomas Jefferson and those aligned with him — labeled Democratic-Republicans — supported views that were nearly the opposite of those supported by the Federalists:
They favored a smaller national government and powerful states.
They believed in low tariffs to allow the average person to buy cheap foreign goods.
They favored France in the realm of foreign policy.
By 1794, both groups had organized themselves into political parties — or factions, as Washington referred to them. The United States had its first two-party system.
Despite these early successes, quarrels broke out between the members of Washington’s cabinet. Hamilton, the secretary of treasury, and Thomas Jefferson, the secretary of state, started an intense rivalry as they bid for Washington’s support. This rivalry gave America its first political parties — Hamilton’s Federalists and Jefferson’s Democratic-Republicans — and a two party system by 1794 (check out the sidebar in this section titled “The first party system”). Although Washington was closer to the Federalists in his views, he
refused to align himself with either party.
Running unopposed for a second term
Despite wanting to retire and return home to Mount Vernon, Washington decided to stand for reelection in 1792. He knew that his stature provided legitimacy for the new country and that only he could keep the fighting between Hamilton and Jefferson under control.
Not surprisingly, the founding father of the United States had no opposition in 1792 and won reelection easily. He didn’t even have to campaign, because nobody opposed him in the election. The Electoral College reelected him unanimously.
Washington’s second inaugural address was the shortest inaugural address in U.S. history, containing fewer than 300 words.
Establishing a policy of neutrality
In 1793, France declared war on Great Britain. Washington had to make a decision. Great Britain was still the mother country of most U.S. citizens, but France had helped the Colonies win independence, so many citizens felt an affinity for that country. With his cabinet split over which side to support, Washington made a bold decision — one that impacted U.S. foreign policy for the next century. In April 1793, Washington officially proclaimed the neutrality of the United States in the war, advocating that the United States stay out of European conflicts.
By doing so, Washington violated the 1778 Treaty of Alliance, which called for the United States to aid France in the case of war. France, bitterly disappointed, attempted to agitate Washington by sending Edmond Genet, an ambassador, to tour the United States and speak out against Washington and his policies. Genet went as far as organizing groups of pro-French U.S. citizens against Washington. This tactic backfired, leading even Jefferson, France’s most ardent supporter, to endorse Washington’s position. Washington prevailed and established the principle of U.S. neutrality in European affairs.
Quelling civil strife
Just when a return to normal, quiet times seemed possible, another crisis arose. In 1794, at Hamilton’s urging, Congress passed a new tax on distilled liquor. This new tax threatened many distillers in western Pennsylvania. In the fall of 1794, violent resistance to the new tax broke out, ending in the murder of a federal officer in Pennsylvania.
Washington knew that he had to act quickly for a couple of reasons:
Violence against the government could not be tolerated.
Not responding to the violence would be considered a sign of weakness, thus threatening the new government.
Washington called on the military to stop what is now known as the Whiskey Rebellion. Washington even decided to head the military force himself. This military action ended the rebellion without much bloodshed. For the first time, the new government flexed its muscles and showed its critics that it was here to stay.
The final controversy of Washington’s presidency was the Jay Treaty. Washington sent Chief Justice John Jay to Britain in 1794 after Britain seized U.S. ships in the West Indies. Jay returned in 1795 with a treaty that many U.S. citizens, especially Democratic-Republicans, found unacceptable.
The Jay Treaty contained several clauses beneficial to the United States, but it also obligated the United States to repay pre-revolutionary debts to Britain. In turn, the British agreed to pay for damages caused by the British navy’s seizure of U.S. ships and to abandon some of their forts still left in the northwestern part of the United States.
Despite Democratic-Republican opposition, the Federalists controlling the Senate approved the treaty. However, Republicans in the House of Representatives demanded that the House be able to vote on the treaty. They argued that because the treaty included disbursing government funds and it was the responsibility of the House to appropriate funds, representatives were entitled to vote on the treaty.
But Washington refused to submit the treaty, claiming that, based on the Constitution, only the president and the Senate should be involved in treaty negotiations. Washington prevailed, setting the precedent that still holds true today.
Stepping Down
By 1796, Washington had had enough. Disgusted with the constant partisanship in Congress, Washington wanted nothing more than to return home. He longed for Mount Vernon and was ready to retire after over 40 years of public service.
Before leaving office, however, he made one final speech to warn the U.S. public about future dangers and to set the political foundation for future presidents. He delivered his famous “Farewell Address” on September 17, 1796, saying, “The great rule of conduct for us in regard to foreign nations, is, in extending our commercial relations to have with them as little political connection as possible.”
Washington’s farewell address was actually a speech written for him by James Madison back in 1792, when Washington contemplated retiring after his first term. Now at odds with Madison, a Democratic-Republican, Washington turned to Hamilton to polish up the speech for him. Hamilton did so, and his influence is clearly visible in the address.
In his farewell address, Washington set out to warn the country against making any kind of alliance with foreign powers for several reasons:
He was afraid that the United States was not yet powerful enough to face off against European countries. He was aware that any of them could easily destroy the new country in a major war.
He stated that alliances forced the U.S. public to take sides. With the United States so ethnically divided, this could split the country and create long lasting divisions.
Finally, he warned the country against “factions” — as he called political parties — because they divided the country along partisan lines and undermined the spirit of cooperation so necessary for the new country to survive.
Although Washington’s warnings on foreign alliances were listened to, his warnings against factionalism and partisan conflict fell on deaf ears, as the following presidential election showed. Thus, his address had its most lasting impact in the foreign affairs arena. True to Washington’s words, the United States stayed out of world affairs (back then the equivalent of European affairs) and became isolationist until the 20th century and the presidency of Theodore Roosevelt.
Retiring Briefly
Washington left office in March 1797 to go into his well-deserved retirement. To his disappointment, his retirement didn’t last long. President Adams sought his help only a year later. A conflict with France started, and Adams was afraid it would turn into a full-fledged war. So he asked Washington to take control of the U.S. armed forces. Washington reluctantly agreed. He commanded the military without ever leaving Mount Vernon, and the conflict never turned into a war.
A year later, Washington wrote his will. In it, he freed almost half of his slaves.
In December 1799, he caught pneumonia while inspecting his plantation. The founding father of the United States died on December 14, 1799, and the U.S. public mourned him for many generations.
Chapter 4
The Authoritarian and the Philosopher: John Adams and Thomas Jefferson
In This Chapter
Helping create a new country: Adams
Contributing to the nation’s intellectual and territorial expansion: Jefferson
T his chapter deals with two presidents who were also founding fathers, John Adams and Thomas Jefferson. Without either of these prominent men, the United States would not be the same country it is today. Adams set the foundation for independence by tirelessly working in Europe as a diplomat, getting the support of France in the Revolutionary War. Jefferson wrote the Declaration of Independence, setting the foundation for our modern day form of government. As president, Adams turned authoritarian and tried to silence his opposition: This left a dark stain on his presidency. Jefferson, on the other hand, turned out to be one of our greatest presidents. One of his greatest accomplishments was the Louisiana Purchase of 1803.
Founding the Country and Almost Destroying It: John Adams
Unlike Washington, Adams didn’t need the military to help him move up the social ladder. After attending the finest schools, Adams became one of t
he great minds of his times. Today he is considered one of the greatest political thinkers in U.S. history. He still has an impact on the field of political philosophy.
The good lawyer
Born in 1735, John Adams was the son of a prominent family in Massachusetts. He was so bright that Harvard University admitted him when he was only 16 years old. Adams studied Latin, history, and law, and decided that he wanted to be a lawyer after graduation. In 1758, he opened his own law office. Adams soon gained a reputation as one of the great legal minds in the Colonies.
After establishing a successful career, Adams married Abigail Smith in 1764 — their marriage lasted 54 years. One of their children, John Quincy Adams, later became president of the United States.
Adams’s early career
Adams’s legal career proved to be his way into politics. In 1765, Great Britain enacted the Stamp Act, a tax on all legal documents, contracts, and even newspapers, to collect more money from the Colonies. Instead of openly protesting, Adams sat down and drew up a complicated legal defense. He claimed that because the Colonies were not represented in the British parliament, they didn’t have to pay the tax. Suddenly the name John Adams was a household name in the Colonies. When the British repealed the Act in 1766, a lot of credit went to Adams.
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