As a delegate to the convention, Madison automatically became a member of the Virginia state legislature. He failed to win reelection because he refused to provide voters with free whiskey, as was commonly done back then. But in 1779, the Assembly of Virginia elected him to serve in the Continental Congress. Madison was only 29 years old — the youngest member of the Congress — but he built a reputation as a skilled legislator.
James Madison was one of the few founding fathers who didn’t fight in the Revolutionary War. He thought that he was physically too weak to fight.
After the British accepted U.S. independence, Madison ran for the Virginia legislature one more time, winning easily. During the three years he served, Madison was responsible for passing Jefferson’s bill to guarantee religious freedom in Virginia.
His main focus soon shifted to trade; he initiated a conference between Virginia and Maryland to discuss the issue of navigation rules on the Potomac River. It failed, because Delaware and Pennsylvania — the other states the Potomac River runs through — were not included in the talks.
Next, Madison, through a resolution passed by the Virginia legislature, called for a national conference to discuss trade regulations between the states. During that meeting, Madison and the other participants concluded that the Articles of Confederation were not working and needed to be amended. Madison proposed a constitutional convention to change the Articles of Confederation. The meeting was held in Philadelphia in 1787, and Madison himself was one of the delegates.
One of the great weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation was that the power to regulate trade and levy taxes remained with the states. States often refused to give any of their tax revenue to the federal government, as required by the Articles, leaving the national government poorly funded. In addition, some states engaged in tariff wars with each other, undermining the creation of a national economy. The country often appeared to consist of 13 independent countries rather than one United States.
Working his way into politics
Like Jefferson, Madison grew up in a wealthy family. His father owned a plantation, referred to as Montpelier, in Virginia and was one of the most prominent men in the county. Madison received an excellent education, first at home by private tutors and then at a private preparatory school.
Madison also attended what today is Princeton University. He started his studies in 1769, focusing on philosophy, theology, history, and Latin and Greek. After completing his degree in 1771, Madison decided to move back to his plantation, where he battled several illnesses from 1772 until 1775. During this time, he continued his studies and developed many of the political ideas he later contributed to the Constitution and the Bill off Rights.
Composing the Constitution
Madison was so eager to change the Articles of Confederation that he was one of the first delegates to arrive in Philadelphia for the Constitutional Convention. He played a major role at the convention — many credit him with single-handedly making sure that the delegates wrote a new constitution. In the Virginia Plan, he advocated the creation of a new government with two houses, with representation in each based on population. The Virginia Plan put the larger states in control of the new government. Madison further advocated a federal judiciary and an independently elected president.
Madison wanted to make sure that the new government wasn’t dependent on the states, so he called for a strong central government with independent powers. His plan was changed when the smaller states insisted on equal representation in the Senate. Madison consented to the change, knowing that it was the only way to get the Constitution ratified at the convention.
While in Philadelphia, Madison was in constant contact with Jefferson, who was in Paris at the time. Madison’s notes to Jefferson represent the only information that we possess today about the proceedings in Philadelphia. Madison’s notes were published in 1840 under the title “Journal of the Federal Convention” (still available, though you probably won’t find it in a bookstore). Madison refused to publish the proceedings until the last member of the Constitutional Convention died — it turned out to be him.
Writing to ratify the Constitution
With the Constitution approved by the delegates, the effort to get it ratified by the states began. Madison worked tirelessly for the passage of the Constitution. He debated opponents in the Virginia legislature, and most importantly, he, along with Alexander Hamilton and John Jay, wrote The Federalist Papers in support of the Constitution.
The Federalist Papers
The Federalist Papers consist of 85 essays written by James Madison, Alexander Hamilton, and John Jay. (Complete text is available at the University of Oklahoma College of Law Web site at www.law.ou.edu/hist/federalist, as well as other Web sites and in print.) These essays, published beginning in October of 1787 in newspapers throughout the states, explained and supported the provisions of the Constitution and countered arguments and charges made by opponents, labeled Anti-Federalists, to its passage.
Madison wrote 29 of the essays, including the most famous ones — essays number 10 and 51. In these two essays, Madison argues that liberty is safest in a large republic, because many different interest groups compete against each other and none of them can become dominant. This assures that no group will be dominant and oppress minority viewpoints. The papers greatly contributed to the ratification of the Constitution in 1788.
Serving in Congress
With work on the Constitution finished, Madison ran for the Senate in 1788. He lost. Unwilling to give up, he ran for the House of Representatives in 1789 and defeated close friend and fellow future president James Monroe. For the next eight years, Madison served in the House of Representatives.
Madison did some of his major work as a U.S. Congressman:
He was responsible for the legislation that attached the Bill of Rights (see Chapter 1) to the Constitution. Taking Jefferson’s recommendations into account, Madison drew up the legislation and secured its passage through Congress.
He became actively involved in the conflict between Jefferson and Hamilton over states’ rights versus federal power. Madison, who started out as a Hamilton supporter, objected to the establishment of a federal bank, as well as to having the federal government pay off the states’ debts. By 1792, Madison broke with Hamilton and aligned himself with Jefferson. Madison and Jefferson formed the core of the Democratic-Republican Party and worked together for the next decade. (See “The first party system,” a sidebar in Chapter 3.)
By 1796, Madison had become so disillusioned with the Federalist administration and the Federalist-controlled Congress that he retired from Congress. Again his political career seemed to be over. Madison, having married Dolley Payne Todd — a young widow — in 1794, didn’t mind leaving politics and looked forward to becoming a family man.
Returning to national politics
In 1796, Madison thought that he had retired from politics for good. Then the Federalist Congress passed the Alien and Sedition Acts, which made it illegal to criticize the government (see Chapter 4 for more on these acts). Madison, concerned that the acts violated the Bill of Rights, wrote the Virginia Resolution, which not only condemned the acts, but also encouraged states to refuse to abide by them. This brought the country close to civil war and created massive support for the Democratic-Republican Party.
In 1800, Madison campaigned tirelessly for his friend Jefferson’s presidential bid. When Jefferson won the office of president, Madison became his secretary of state. For the next eight years, Madison was Jefferson’s closest advisor. Madison had a hand in the Louisiana Purchase of 1803 and the Embargo Act of 1807 (Chapter 4 has more on Jefferson’s presidency).
Jefferson retired in 1808 and handpicked his friend James Madison to be his successor. Madison won the election easily, defeating the Federalist candidate, Charles C. Pinckney, in a landslide.
Fighting the British for the last time
Foreign policy dominated Madison’s two terms as pres
ident. Britain and France both continued seizing U.S. ships (see Chapter 4) and conscripting American sailors. Madison tried a new tactic: He reopened trade with Britain and France. The congressional authority contained in Macon’s Bill No. 2, also stated that as soon as either Britain or France respected U.S. neutrality in their conflict and stopped seizing U.S. ships, the United States would impose an embargo against the other country. After France agreed to halt the practice, Madison punished Britain by stopping all trade.
A group of Democratic-Republicans led by Henry Clay and John Calhoun, called “War Hawks,” wanted to expand U.S. influence into the British-held lands in the northern and western part of the continent, even if it meant using force.
A major uprising surfaced in 1811 when the Shawnee nation rebelled against U.S. domination. The Democratic-Republican War Hawks blamed the British for inciting the Shawnee to rebel. Combined with maritime insults and a longing for British-held lands in North America, this proved enough for Congress to declare war on Britain in June 1812. Ironically, that same month, Britain stopped seizing and raiding U.S. ships. By the time this news, which could have prevented the war, reached the United States, it was too late.
The war was a disaster for Madison. Public opinion was split — the Federalists opposed it, and some New England states refused to participate in it. “Mr. Madison’s War,” as the opposition labeled it, almost destroyed the United States. Despite the disastrous war, Madison managed to win reelection in 1812 by squeaking out a narrow victory.
In August of 1814, British troops attacked and destroyed Washington, D.C. When U.S. militiamen ran instead of defending the capital, Madison fled the capital and spent the next four days on horseback trying to rally his troops.
This disaster of a war officially ended in December 1814, with neither side gaining anything.
Changing policies and retiring
The last two years of Madison’s presidency were much less stressful than the first six. Madison reversed his earlier position and supported Federalist policies, including the establishment of a national bank. The economy was doing well, and Jackson’s victory over the British in the last, useless battle of the War of 1812 restored national pride.
After handpicking his successor, James Monroe, Madison happily retired in 1817. He spent his last years helping Jefferson establish the University of Virginia. After years of illness and the inability to recover from the loss of his friend, Jefferson, James Madison died in 1836 at the age of 85.
Succeeding Abroad, Failing at Home: James Monroe
James Monroe, shown in Figure 5-2, was the last president of the Virginia dynasty — his predecessors, except Adams, all came from Virginia. Monroe proved to be a skilled foreign policy maker — he finally established peace with Great Britain. Had he had equal success with his domestic policy, he might have been rated as one of the great presidents in U.S. history.
Figure 5-2: James Monroe, 5th president of the United States (1817–1825).
Courtesy of the Library of Congress
Monroe’s early career
In 1775, Monroe quit his studies at the College of William and Mary to enlist in the army when the fight for independence began; Monroe became a lieutenant in the Continental Army. He was with Washington during the famous crossing of the Delaware and at the battle of Trenton, where he was severely wounded by a bullet. He recovered rapidly and was made a major before participating in the battle of Monmouth, his last military engagement.
In 1779, Washington sent Monroe back to Virginia to raise a new military unit that never materialized. Monroe stayed in Virginia and became one of Governor Jefferson’s aides. The two developed a close friendship. Monroe credited Jefferson with developing his interest in politics.
A true hero
Unlike his fellow Virginians, James Monroe didn’t grow up in a wealthy family and enjoy a prosperous upbringing. He was a hard worker. And like Washington, whom he served with during the Revolutionary War, he used the military to advance in life.
James Monroe was born on a small farm in rural Virginia. He walked several miles each day to attend school. Monroe worked hard, and at the age of 16, he entered the College of William and Mary. He did not complete his studies. Monroe left the college in 1775, a year and a half into his studies, to fight in the Revolutionary War.
Representing Virginia and the country
In 1782, Monroe became the youngest member in the Virginia legislature. He joined the Congress of the Confederation only a year later, and his career path was set. Despite all this politicking, Monroe found time to buy an estate close to those of Jefferson and Madison, and to marry Elizabeth Kortright.
Monroe served in the Virginia legislature for three years. He dropped out of political life after his marriage in 1786, but he was elected to the Virginia legislature again the same year. He attended the Annapolis Convention on trade issues that was organized by Madison (I talk about this conference in the section, “Madison’s early career,” earlier in this chapter), and he supported Madison’s call for a national convention to change the Articles of Confederation. To his great disappointment, he wasn’t one of the delegates that attended the Philadelphia convention.
When Monroe saw the constitution that came out of the Constitutional Convention, he opposed it. He believed that the proposed government was too strong, and he demanded that a Bill of Rights be in the document. James Monroe was the only founding father to vote against the Constitution. To make matters worse, when Monroe ran for the newly established House of Representatives in 1789, he lost the race to his friend Madison.
However, in 1790, the Virginia legislature elected Monroe to serve in the U.S. Senate. Monroe, along with most of his colleagues, got involved in the struggle over establishing a federal bank (see the sidebar, “The first party system,” in Chapter 3 for a discussion of these issues). Monroe became one of the leaders of the Democratic-Republican cause.
Monroe was such a supporter and admirer of France that Washington appointed him minister plenipotentiary, the equivalent of today’s ambassador, to France in 1794. Unfortunately, Washington recalled him in 1796 for being too pro-French and anti-British. Monroe, upset at being recalled, left the administration and retired to his home in Virginia.
Serving as governor
To Monroe’s surprise, the people of Virginia elected him governor in 1799. He served a quiet term until 1803, when his friend Jefferson, now president, called on him to travel to France to negotiate the Louisiana Purchase. In Paris, Monroe was one of the main architects of the treaty that sold the Louisiana Territory to the United States. Jefferson was so impressed that he named Monroe the ambassador to Great Britain, a post he held until 1807.
When Jefferson stepped down from the presidency, the Democratic-Republicans were split over who should succeed him. A small faction of the party pushed for Monroe, who did nothing to discourage them. Annoyed, Jefferson and Madison turned away from their old friend. After Madison’s election as president, Monroe found himself without a job.
Serving well: Monroe’s foreign policy
In 1811, Monroe was elected governor of the state of Virginia once again. By this time, Monroe and Jefferson had made up their differences. President Madison extended an olive branch to Monroe, naming him secretary of state. Monroe resigned as governor and began serving as secretary of state.
Back then, the position of secretary of state was the springboard to the presidency. By appointing Monroe to the position, Madison had ensured that Monroe would be the Democratic-Republicans’ next nominee for president.
Even though Monroe personally opposed the war with Britain in 1812, he served his president loyally. When the situation became desperate in 1814, Monroe joined the war effort, leading the Maryland militia. This leadership position enhanced his reputation — he became a hero to the U.S. public. When Madison announced his retirement in 1816, there was no question who would succeed him. Monroe received the nomination of the Democratic-Republican Party and easily defeate
d the Federalist candidate, Rufus King.
James Monroe was responsible for saving a large number of State Department records, including the Declaration of Independence, before the British burned Washington, D.C.
Showing a flair for foreign policy
James Monroe’s main love was foreign policy. Living abroad for over a decade stimulated his interest in Europe, especially Britain and France. He wanted to make sure that the United States and Britain never went to war again. At the same time, if another war was necessary, Monroe wanted to make certain that the United States was ready for it — he wanted to avoid a disaster similar to the War of 1812. So he established a permanent military force that was large enough and powerful enough to defend the country.
When he assumed office, Monroe went to work to sign a new peace treaty with Britain. In 1818, he successfully negotiated the Rush-Bagot agreement, which limited the size of the naval forces that both countries could use on the Great Lakes. That same year, Monroe agreed to set the U.S.-Canadian border at the 49th parallel (up to the Rocky mountains) and settle the Oregon territory jointly with Britain. With these agreements, Monroe settled all the differences between the two countries and provided the basis for the cordial relationship the United States and Great Britain enjoy to this day.
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