Empires and Barbarians

by Peter Heather

  57 The availability of Bede’s extraordinary narrative and a host of other sources from the early conversion period in England means that the Anglo-Saxon case study has often been a vehicle for exploring these ideas. For an excellent introduction, see Mayr Harting (1972); cf. Mayr-Harting (1994) for a comparison with Bulgaria.

  58 There is little sign that conversion to Christianity changed the nature of immediate political competition in the Slavic context, any more than it did in the Anglo-Saxon, on which see the wonderful paper of Wormald (1978). On the administrative front, the last of the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms was brought to Christianity in 681, when Wessex conquered the Isle of Wight, but the beginnings of an administrative system that was working convincingly via literacy are, to my mind, visible only two or three generations later, and it is really only in the ninth and tenth centuries that the evidence multiplies.

  59 Carolingian imperial rule had established tithing as a norm from the later eighth century: see McKitterick (1977). This made the later Slavic conversions different examples, like that of the Anglo-Saxons, where religious taxation was not yet so firmly established.

  60 For the Tervingi, see Chapter 2. For the 983 revolt, see Reuter (1991); Lübke (1994), commenting particularly on the narrative of Thietmar, Chronicle 3.17ff. The Russian Primary Chronicle is the basic source of information on the Russian case, upon which Shepard (2005), with full references to the earlier literature, provides an excellent recent treatment.

  61 Vladimir: Russian Primary Chronicle (978–80 AD); with Shepard (2005) for commentary. For the Elbe Slavs, see the references in note 47 above.

  62 For an introduction to the concept of ‘peer polity interaction’, and some case studies, see Renfrew and Cherry (1986).

  63 For a detailed discussion of coin flows, see Noonan (1997), (1998).

  64 For comparative case studies, both ancient and modern, see Gottmann (1980); Rowlands et al. (1987); Bilde et al. (1993); Champion (1995). It is extremely important, however, to factor in a generalized concept of agency: cf. Wilson (2008).

  11. THE END OF MIGRATION AND THE BIRTH OF EUROPE

  1 Annals of Fulda (900 AD).

  2 See Faith (1997) on the extent to which the Normans rewrote the rules by which peasant life was governed.

  3 See in particular Chapters 6 and 9.

  4 As we saw in Chapter 6, the 50–75 per cent spread of possibly ‘Anglo-Saxon’ Y chromosomes recorded in samples of the modern English population can be accounted for by an invading group that was anywhere between 50–75 per cent of the fifth-/sixth-century population, or only 10 per cent if you give them even a marginal breeding advantage.

  5 These key cases reported by Ammianus and Procopius are explored in detail in Chapters 4 and 5.

  6 In these cases, the evidence is currently not good that the groups actually crossed the frontier, but reliable contemporaries describe at least their subsequent moves, to Spain and North Africa respectively, and to join Alaric, in precisely such terms.

  7 The Gothic and Lombard migration flows are discussed in Chapters 3 and 5.

  8 The ideas set out here, and through earlier chapters, are discussed in more detail in Heather (2008a).

  9 For Anglo-Saxon return migration, see Chapter 6 above.

  10 Autumn 376, although this has been challenged, is also the likeliest time for the move of the Gothic Tervingi: see Heather (2005), 153.

  11 This presumably limited the amount of fundamental social (as opposed to political) change that was generated by the flows of new wealth into Scandinavia, since the wealth was bound initially to fall largely into the hands of those who where already reasonably wealthy.

  12 And possibly also by non-militarized slaves: see Chapter 4 above.

  13 Of course, Jordanes’ migration topos gave more than an excuse to do so: see Chapter 3.

  14 The one successor state not founded by a new coalition created on the march was that of the Burgundians, but there is a crucial lack of narrative evidence to help us understand fifth-century Burgundian history, which was certainly traumatic.

  15 Hunnic imperial history confirms the point, since the huge supraregional power created by Attila and his predecessors was entirely dependent upon large-scale flows of Mediterranean wealth for its continued existence: see Chapter 5.

  16 Just one surviving vignette illustrates Gotho-Slav interaction: Jordanes, Getica 48.247, with p. 234 above.

  17 The sources suggest, however, that some Slavic groups had already developed a considerable degree of political and military organization on the back of the new wealth flows of the sixth century: see Chapter 8.

  18 Bartlett (1993), especially chapters 2 and 5, provides an excellent introduction to these new patterns.

  19 Tacitus, Germania 46.4.

  PRIMARY SOURCES

  Following normal conventions, specific editions and translations of standard classical works are not listed in the bibliography, though all those works cited in this book appear below, and most are translated in either or both of the Loeb and Penguin Classics series. All Christian authors are available, if sometimes in outdated form, in Patrologia Latina or Patrologia Graeca editions. More recent (sometimes competing) editions of most of the texts cited in the introductions and notes can be found in GCS (Die Griechischen Christlichen Schriftsteller der ersten Jahrhunderte), CSEL (Corpus Scriptorum Ecclesiasticorum Latinorum), CC (Corpus Christianorum), and SC (Sources Chrétiennes). Many are translated in the Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, and Library of the Fathers collections. Otherwise, the following editions and translations of late Roman and early medieval sources have been used.

  Adam of Bremen, History of the Bishops of Hamburg, ed. Schmeidler (1917); trans. Tschan (1959)

  Agathias, History, ed. Keydell (1967); trans. Frendo (1975)

  Ammianus Marcellinus, ed. and trans. Rolfe (1935–39)

  Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, ed. and trans. Whitelock et al. (1961)

  Annals of Fulda, ed. Pertz and Kurze (1891); trans. Reuter (1992)

  Annals of St Bertin, ed. Waitz (1883); trans. Nelson (1991)

  Anonymous Bavarian Geographer, ed. Bielowski (1946)

  Anonymous Valesianus, ed. and trans. in Rolfe (1935–39), vol. 3

  Aurelius Victor, Caesars, ed. Pichlmayr (1911); trans. Bird (1994)

  Bede, Ecclesiastical History, ed. and trans. Colgrave and Mynors (1969)

  Caesar, Gallic War

  Cassiodorus, Variae, ed. Mommsen (1894b); trans. Hodgkin (1886); Barnish (1992)

  Chronicle of Ireland, trans. Charles-Edwards (2006)

  Chronicle of Monemvasia, ed. and trans. Charanis (1950)

  Chronicon Paschale, ed. Dindorf (1832); trans. Whitby and Whitby (1989)

  Claudian, Works, ed. and trans. Platnauer (1922)

  Codex Theodosianus, ed. Mommsen and Kreuger (1905); trans. Pharr (1952)

  Constantius, Life of St Germanus, ed. Noble and Head (1995), 75–106

  Consularia Constantinopolitana, ed. Mommsen (1892)

  Cosmas of Prague, Chronicle of Bohemia, ed. Bretholz and Weinberger (1923)

  Crith Gablach: ed. Binchy (1970).

  De Administrando Imperio, ed. and trans. Moravcsik and Jenkins (1967)

  Dio Cassius, Roman History, ed. and trans. Cary (1914–27)

  Encomium of Queen Emma, ed. and trans. Campbell (1949)

  Ennodius, Works, ed. Vogel (1885)

  Eugippius, Life of Severinus, ed. Noll and Vetter (1963); trans. Bieler (1965)

  Eunapius, Histories, ed. and trans. Blockley (1982)

  Eutropius, Breviarium, ed. Santini (1979); trans. Bird (1993)

  Fredegar, Chronicle, ed. and trans. Wallace-Hadrill (1960)

  Gallic Chronicle of 452, ed. Mommsen (1892)

  Gallus Anonymous, Chronicle, ed. Maleczynski (1952); trans. Knoll and Schaer (2003)

  Gildas, Ruin of Britain, ed. and trans. Winterbottom (1978)

  Gregory of Tours, Histories, ed. Krusch and Levison (1951); trans. Thorpe (1974)

  Helmold, Chronicle
of the Slavs, ed. Lappenberg and Schmeidler (1909); trans. Tschan (1966)

  Herodotus, Histories

  Historia Augusta, ed. and trans. Magie (1932)

  Hydatius, Chronicle, ed. Mommsen (1894); trans. Burgess (1993)

  Ibn Fadlan, ed. and trans. Canard (1973)

  Ibn Jaqub, ed. and trans. Miquel (1966)

  Ibn Rusteh, ed. and trans. Wiet (1957)

  Jerome, Chronicle: an online edition and English translation may be found at http://www.tertullian.org./fathers/jerome_chronicle_oo_eintro.htm

  John of Antioch, ed. Mueller (1851–70); trans. Gordon (1966)

  John of Nikiu, Chronicle, trans. Charles (1916) (from the Ethiopian)

  Jordanes, Romana and Getica, ed. Mommsen (1882); Getica, trans. Mierow (1915)

  Laws of Ine, ed. Liebermann (1903–16); trans. Whitelock (1955)

  Life of Anskar, ed. Trillmich et al. (1978); trans. Robinson (1921)

  Malchus, ed. and trans. Blockley (1982)

  Menander Protector, ed. and trans. Blockley (1985)

  Miracles of St Demetrius, ed. Lemerle (1979–81)

  Notitia Dignitatum, ed. Seeck (1962)

  Novels of Valentinian III, ed. Mommsen and Kreuger (1905); trans. Pharr (1952)

  Origo Gentis Langobardorum: see Paul the Deacon.

  Olympiodorus of Thebes, ed. and trans. Blockley (1982)

  Orosius, Against the Pagans, ed. Arnaud-Lindet (1990–91); trans. Defarri (1964)

  Panegyrici Latini, ed. and trans. Nixon and Rogers (1994)

  Passion of St Saba, ed. Delehaye (1912); trans. Heather and Matthews (1991)

  Paul the Deacon, History of the Lombards, ed. Bethmann and Waitz (1878); trans. Foulke (1974)

  Paulinus of Pella, Eucharisticon, ed. and trans. Evelyn White (1961), vol. 2

  Peter the Patrician, ed. Mueller (1851–70)

  Pliny, Natural History

  Priscus, ed. and trans. Blockley (1982)

  Procopius, Works, ed. and trans. Dewing (1914–40)

  Prosper Tiro, Chronicle, ed. Mommsen (1892)

  Ptolemy, Geography

  Royal Frankish Annals, ed. Kurze (1895); trans. Scholz (1972)

  Russian Primary Chronicle, trans. Cross and Sherbowitz-Wetzor (1953)

  Saxo Grammaticus, History of the Danes, ed. Knabe et al. (1931–57); trans. Fisher (1996) (Books I–IX); Christiansen (1980–81) (Books X–XVI)

  Socrates, Historia Ecclesiastica, ed. Hansen (1995); trans. in Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, vol. 2

  Sozomen, Historia Ecclesiastica, ed. Bidez and Hansen (1995); trans. in Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, vol. 2

  Strabo, Geography

  Strategicon of Maurice, ed. Dennis (1981); trans. Dennis (1984)

  Synesius of Cyrene, ed. Garzya (1989)

  Tacitus, Annals ; Histories ; Germania

  Themistius, Orations, ed. Schenkl et al. (1965–74); trans. Heather and Matthews (1991) (Orations 8 and 10); Heather & Moncur (2001) (Orations 14–16 and 34)

  Theodoret, Historia Ecclesiastica, ed. Parmentier and Hansen (1998); trans. in Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, vol. 3

  Theophanes, Chronographia, ed. Niebuhr (1839–41); trans. Mango and Scott (1997)

  Theophylact Simocatta, History, ed. De Boor and Wirth (1972); trans. Whitby and Whitby (1986)

  Thietmar of Merseburg, Chronicle, ed. Holtzmann (1935); trans. Warner (2001)

  Victor of Vita, History of the Persecution in Africa, ed. Petschenig (1881); trans. Moorhead (1992)

  Widukind of Corvey, ed. Lohmann and Hirsch (1935)

  Zonaras, Chronicle, ed. Weber (1897)

  Zosimus, History, ed. Paschoud (1971–89); trans. Ridley (1982)

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