Sapiens and Homo Deus

by Yuval Noah Harari

  43.Betsy Isaacson, ‘Mind Control: How EEG Devices Will Read Your Brain Waves and Change Your World’, Huffington Post, 20 November 2014, accessed 20 December 2014, http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2012/11/20/mind-control-how-eeg-devices-read-brainwaves_n_2001431.html; ‘EPOC Headset’, Emotiv, http://emotiv.com/store/epoc-detail/; ‘Biosensor Innovation to Power Breakthrough Wearable Technologies Today and Tomorrow’, NeuroSky, http://neurosky.com/.

  44.Samantha Payne, ‘Stockholm: Members of Epicenter Workspace Are Using Microchip Implants to Open Doors’, International Business Times, 31 January 2015, accessed 9 August 2015, http://www.ibtimes.co.uk/stockholm-office-workers-epicenter-implanted-microchips-pay-theirlunch-1486045.

  45.Meika Loe, The Rise of Viagra: How the Little Blue Pill Changed Sex in America (New York: New York University Press, 2004).

  46.Brian Morgan, ‘Saints and Sinners: Sir Harold Gillies’, Bulletin of the Royal College of Surgeons of England 95:6 (2013), 204–5; Donald W. Buck II, ‘A Link to Gillies: One Surgeon’s Quest to Uncover His Surgical Roots’, Annals of Plastic Surgery 68:1 (2012), 1–4.

  47.Paolo Santoni-Rugio, A History of Plastic Surgery (Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer, 2007); P. Niclas Broer, Steven M. Levine and Sabrina Juran, ‘Plastic Surgery: Quo Vadis? Current Trends and Future Projections of Aesthetic Plastic Surgical Procedures in the United States’, Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery 133:3 (2014), 293e–302e.

  48.Holly Firfer, ‘How Far Will Couples Go to Conceive?’, CNN, 17 June 2004, accessed 3 May 2015, http://edition.cnn.com/2004/HEALTH/03/12/infertility.treatment/index.html?iref=allsearch.

  49.Rowena Mason and Hannah Devlin, ‘MPs Vote in Favour of “Three-Person Embryo” Law’, Guardian, 3 February 2015, accessed 3 May 2015, http://www.theguardian.com/science/2015/feb/03/mps-vote-favour-three-person-embryo-law.

  50.Lionel S. Smith and Mark D. E. Fellowes, ‘Towards a Lawn without Grass: The Journey of the Imperfect Lawn and Its Analogues’, Studies in the History of Gardens & Designed Landscape 33:3 (2013), 158–9; John Dixon Hunt and Peter Willis (eds), The Genius of the Place: The English Landscape Garden 1620–1820, 5th edn (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2000), 1–45; Anne Helmriech, The English Garden and National Identity: The Competing Styles of Garden Design 1870–1914 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002), 1–6.

  51.Robert J. Lake, ‘Social Class, Etiquette and Behavioral Restraint in British Lawn Tennis’, International Journal of the History of Sport 28:6 (2011), 876–94; Beatriz Colomina, ‘The Lawn at War: 1941–1961’, in The American Lawn, ed. Georges Teyssot (New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 1999), 135–53; Virginia Scott Jenkins, The Lawn: History of an American Obsession (Washington: Smithsonian Institution, 1994).

  2 The Anthropocene

  1.‘Canis lupus’, IUCN Red List of Threatened Species, accessed 20 December 2014, http://www.iucnredlist.org/details/3746/1; ‘Fact Sheet: Gray Wolf’, Defenders of Wildlife, accessed 20 December 2014, http://www.defenders.org/gray-wolf/basic-facts; ‘Companion Animals’, IFAH, accessed 20 December 2014, http://www.ifaheurope.org/companion-animals/about-pets.html; ‘Global Review 2013’, World Animal Protection, accessed 20 December 2014, https://www.worldanimalprotection.us.org/sites/default/files/us_files/global_review_2013_0.pdf.

  2.Anthony D. Barnosky, ‘Megafauna Biomass Tradeoff as a Driver of Quaternary and Future Extinctions’, PNAS 105:1 (2008), 11543–8; for wolves and lions: William J. Ripple et al., ‘Status and Ecological Effects of the World’s Largest Carnivores’, Science 343:6167 (2014), 151; according to Dr Stanley Coren there are about 500 million dogs in the world: Stanley Coren, ‘How Many Dogs Are There in the World?’, Psychology Today, 19 September 2012, accessed 20 December 2014, http://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/canine-corner/201209/how-manydogs-are-there-in-the-world; for the number of cats, see: Nicholas Wade, ‘DNA Traces 5 Matriarchs of 600 Million Domestic Cats’, New York Times, 29 June 2007, accessed 20 December 2014, http://www.nytimes.com/2007/06/29/health/29iht-cats.1.6406020.html; for the African buffalo, see: ‘Syncerus caffer’, IUCN Red List of Threatened Species, accessed 20 December 2014, http://www.iucnredlist.org/details/21251/0; for cattle population, see: David Cottle and Lewis Kahn (eds), Beef Cattle Production and Trade (Collingwood: Csiro, 2014), 66; for the number of chickens, see: ‘Live Animals’, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations: Statistical Division, accessed 20 December 2014, http://faostat3.fao.org/browse/Q/QA/E; for the number of chimpanzees, see: ‘Pan troglodytes’, IUCN Red List of Threatened Species, accessed 20 December 2014, http://www.iucnredlist.org/details/15933/0.

  3.‘Living Planet Report 2014’, WWF Global, accessed 20 December 2014, http://wwf.panda.org/about_our_earth/all_publications/living_planet_report/.

  4.Richard Inger et al., ‘Common European Birds Are Declining Rapidly While Less Abundant Species’ Numbers Are Rising’, Ecology Letters 18:1 (2014), 28–36; ‘Live Animals’, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, accessed 20 December 2014, http://faostat.fao.org/site/573/default.aspx#ancor.

  5.Simon L. Lewis and Mark A. Maslin, ‘Defining the Anthropocene’, Nature 519 (2015), 171–80.

  6.Timothy F. Flannery, The Future Eaters: An Ecological History of the Australasian Lands and Peoples (Port Melbourne: Reed Books Australia, 1994); Anthony D. Barnosky et al., ‘Assessing the Causes of Late Pleistocene Extinctions on the Continents’, Science 306:5693 (2004), 70–5; Barry W. Brook and David M. J. S. Bowman, ‘The Uncertain Blitzkrieg of Pleistocene Megafauna’, Journal of Biogeography 31:4 (2004), 517–23; Gifford H. Miller et al., ‘Ecosystem Collapse in Pleistocene Australia and a Human Role in Megafaunal Extinction’, Science 309:5732 (2005), 287–90; Richard G. Roberts et al., ‘New Ages for the Last Australian Megafauna: Continent Wide Extinction about 46,000 Years Ago’, Science 292:5523 (2001), 1888–92; Stephen Wroe and Judith Field, ‘A Review of the Evidence for a Human Role in the Extinction of Australian Megafauna and an Alternative Explanation’, Quaternary Science Reviews 25:21–2 (2006), 2692–703; Barry W. Brooks et al., ‘Would the Australian Megafauna Have Become Extinct if Humans Had Never Colonised the Continent? Comments on “A Review of the Evidence for a Human Role in the Extinction of Australian Megafauna and an Alternative Explanation” by S. Wroe and J. Field’, Quaternary Science Reviews 26:3–4 (2007), 560–4; Chris S. M. Turney et al., ‘Late-Surviving Megafauna in Tasmania, Australia, Implicate Human Involvement in their Extinction’, PNAS 105:34 (2008), 12150–3; John Alroy, ‘A Multispecies Overkill Simulation of the End-Pleistocene Megafaunal Mass Extinction’, Science 292:5523 (2001), 1893–6; J. F. O’Connell and J. Allen, ‘Pre-LGM Sahul (Australia–New Guinea) and the Archaeology of Early Modern Humans’, in Rethinking the Human Evolution: New Behavioral and Biological Perspectives on the Origin and Dispersal of Modern Humans, ed. Paul Mellars (Cambridge: McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research, 2007), 400–1.

  7.Graham Harvey, Animism: Respecting the Living World (Kent Town: Wakefield Press, 2005); Rane Willerslev, Soul Hunters: Hunting, Animism and Personhood Among the Siberian Yukaghirs (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2007); Elina Helander-Renvall, ‘Animism, Personhood and the Nature of Reality: Sami Perspectives’, Polar Record 46:1 (2010), 44–56; Istvan Praet, ‘Animal Conceptions in Animism and Conservation’, in Routledge Handbook of Human–Animal Studies, ed. Susan McHaugh and Garry Marvin (New York: Routledge, 2014), 154–67; Nurit Bird-David, ‘Animism Revisited: Personhood, Environment, and Relational Epistemology’, Current Anthropology 40 (1999), s67–91; N. Bird-David, ‘Animistic Epistemology: Why Some Hunter-Gatherers Do Not Depict Animals’, Ethnos 71:1 (2006), 33–50.

  8.Danny Naveh, ‘Changes in the Perception of Animals and Plants with the Shift to Agricultural Life: What Can Be Learnt from the Nayaka Case, a Hunter-Gatherer Society from the Rain Forests of Southern India?’ [in Hebrew], Animals and Society, 52 (2015), 7–8.

  9.Howard N. Wallace, ‘The Eden Narrative’, Harvard Semitic Monographs 32 (1985), 147–81.

  10.David Adams Leeming and
Margaret Adams Leeming, Encyclopedia of Creation Myths (Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO, 1994), 18; Sam D. Gill, Storytracking: Texts, Stories, and Histories in Central Australia (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998); Emily Miller Bonney, ‘Disarming the Snake Goddess: A Reconsideration of the Faience Figures from the Temple Repositories at Knossos’, Journal of Mediterranean Archaeology 24:2 (2011), 171–90; David Leeming, The Oxford Companion to World Mythology (Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 2005), 350.

  11.Jerome H. Barkow, Leda Cosmides and John Tooby (eds), The Adapted Mind: Evolutionary Psychology and the Generation of Culture (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992); Richard W. Bloom and Nancy Dess (eds), Evolutionary Psychology and Violence: A Primer for Policymakers and Public Policy Advocates (Westport: Praeger, 2003); Charles Crawford and Catherine Salmon (eds), Evolutionary Psychology, Public Policy and Personal Decisions (New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 2008); Patrick McNamara and David Trumbull, An Evolutionary Psychology of Leader–Follower Relations (New York: Nova Science, 2007); Joseph P. Forgas, Martie G. Haselton and William von Hippel (eds), Evolution and the Social Mind: Evolutionary Psychology and Social Cognition (New York: Psychology Press, 2011).

  12.S. Held, M. Mendl, C. Devereux and R. W. Byrne, ‘Social Tactics of Pigs in a Competitive Foraging Task: the “Informed Forager” Paradigm’, Animal Behaviour 59:3 (2000), 569–76; S. Held, M. Mendl, C. Devereux and R. W. Byrne, ‘Studies in Social Cognition: from Primates to Pigs’, Animal Welfare 10 (2001), s209–17; H. B. Graves, ‘Behavior and Ecology of Wild and Feral Swine (Sus scrofa)’, Journal of Animal Science 58:2 (1984), 482–92; A. Stolba and D. G. M. Wood-Gush, ‘The Behaviour of Pigs in a Semi-Natural Environment’, Animal Production 48:2 (1989), 419–25; M. Spinka, ‘Behaviour in Pigs’, in The Ethology of Domestic Animals, 2nd edn, ed. P. Jensen, (Wallingford, UK: CAB International, 2009), 177–91; P. Jensen and D. G. M. Wood-Gush, ‘Social Interactions in a Group of Free-Ranging Sows’, Applied Animal Behaviour Science 12 (1984), 327–37; E. T. Gieling, R. E. Nordquist and F. J. van der Staay, ‘Assessing Learning and Memory in Pigs’, Animal Cognition 14 (2011), 151–73.

  13.I. Horrell and J. Hodgson, ‘The Bases of Sow–Piglet Identification. 2.Cues Used by Piglets to Identify their Dam and Home Pen’, Applied Animal Behavior Science, 33 (1992), 329–43; D. M. Weary and D. Fraser, ‘Calling by Domestic Piglets: Reliable Signals of Need?’, Animal Behaviour 50:4 (1995), 1047–55; H. H. Kristensen et al., ‘The Use of Olfactory and Other Cues for Social Recognition by Juvenile Pigs’, Applied Animal Behaviour Science 72 (2001), 321–33.

  14.M. Helft, ‘Pig Video Arcades Critique Life in the Pen’, Wired, 6 June 1997, http://archive.wired.com/science/discoveries/news/1997/06/4302, retrieved 27 January 2016.

  15.Humane Society of the United States, ‘An HSUS Report: Welfare Issues with Gestation Crates for Pregnant Sows’, February 2013, http://www.humanesociety.org/assets/pdfs/farm/HSUS-Report-on-Gestation-Crates-for-Pregnant-Sows.pdf, retrieved 27 January 2016.

  16.Turnbull and Solms, Brain and the Inner World, 90–2.

  17.David Harel, Algorithmics: The Spirit of Computers, 3rd edn [in Hebrew] (Tel Aviv: Open University of Israel, 2001), 4–6; David Berlinski, The Advent of the Algorithm: The 300-Year Journey from an Idea to the Computer (San Diego: Harcourt, 2000); Hartley Rogers Jr, Theory of Recursive Functions and Effective Computability, 3rd edn (Cambridge, MA, and London: MIT Press, 1992), 1–5; Andreas Blass and Yuri Gurevich, ‘Algorithms: A Quest for Absolute Definitions’, Bulletin of European Association for Theoretical Computer Science 81 (2003), 195–225.

  18.Daniel Kahneman, Thinking, Fast and Slow (New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux, 2011); Dan Ariely, Predictably Irrational (New York: Harper, 2009).

  19.Justin Gregg, Are Dolphins Really Smart? The Mammal Behind the Myth (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013), 81–7; Jaak Panksepp, ‘Affective Consciousness: Core Emotional Feelings in Animals and Humans’, Consciousness and Cognition 14:1 (2005), 30–80.

  20.A. S. Fleming, D. H. O’Day and G. W. Kraemer, ‘Neurobiology of Mother–Infant Interactions: Experience and Central Nervous System Plasticity Across Development and Generations’, Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews 23:5 (1999), 673–85; K. D. Broad, J. P. Curley and E. B. Keverne, ‘Mother–Infant Bonding and the Evolution of Mammalian Relationship’, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B 361:1476 (2006), 2199–214; Kazutaka Mogi, Miho Nagasawa and Takefumi Kikusui, ‘Developmental Consequences and Biological Significance of Mother–Infant Bonding’, Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry 35:5 (2011), 1232–41; Shota Okabe et al., ‘The Importance of Mother–Infant Communication for Social Bond Formation in Mammals’, Animal Science Journal 83:6 (2012), 446–52.

  21.Jean O’Malley Halley, Boundaries of Touch: Parenting and Adult–Child Intimacy (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2007), 50–1; Ann Taylor Allen, Feminism and Motherhood in Western Europe, 1890–1970: The Maternal Dilemma (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005), 190.

  22.Lucille C. Birnbaum, ‘Behaviorism in the 1920s’, American Quarterly 7:1 (1955), 18.

  23.US Department of Labor (1929), ‘Infant Care’, Washington: United States Government Printing Office, http://www.mchlibrary.info/history/chbu/3121–1929.pdf.

  24.Harry Harlow and Robert Zimmermann, ‘Affectional Responses in the Infant Monkey’, Science 130:3373 (1959), 421–32; Harry Harlow, ‘The Nature of Love’, American Psychologist 13 (1958), 673–85; Laurens D. Young et al., ‘Early Stress and Later Response to Separation in Rhesus Monkeys’, American Journal of Psychiatry 130:4 (1973), 400–5; K. D. Broad, J. P. Curley and E. B. Keverne, ‘Mother–Infant Bonding and the Evolution of Mammalian Social Relationships’, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B 361:1476 (2006), 2199–214; Florent Pittet et al., ‘Effects of Maternal Experience on Fearfulness and Maternal Behavior in a Precocial Bird’, Animal Behavior 85:4 (2013), 797–805.

  25.Jacques Cauvin, The Birth of the Gods and the Origins of Agriculture (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000); Tim Ingord, ‘From Trust to Domination: An Alternative History of Human–Animal Relations’, in Animals and Human Society: Changing Perspectives, ed. Aubrey Manning and James Serpell (New York: Routledge, 2002), 1–22; Roberta Kalechofsky, ‘Hierarchy, Kinship and Responsibility’, in A Communion of Subjects: Animals in Religion, Science and Ethics, ed. Kimberley Patton and Paul Waldau (New York: Columbia University Press, 2006), 91–102; Nerissa Russell, Social Zooarchaeology: Humans and Animals in Prehistory (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012), 207–58; Margo DeMello, Animals and Society: An Introduction to Human–Animal Studies (New York: University of Columbia Press, 2012).

  26.Olivia Lang, ‘Hindu Sacrifice of 250,000 Animals Begins’, Guardian, 24 November 2009, accessed 21 December 2014, http://www.theguardian.com/world/2009/nov/24/hindu-sacrifice-gadhimai-festival-nepal.

  27.Benjamin R. Foster (ed.), The Epic of Gilgamesh (New York, London: W. W. Norton, 2001), 90.

  28.Noah J. Cohen, Tsa’ar Ba’ale Hayim: Prevention of Cruelty to Animals: Its Bases, Development and Legislation in Hebrew Literature (Jerusalem and New York: Feldheim Publishers, 1976); Roberta Kalechofsky, Judaism and Animal Rights: Classical and Contemporary Responses (Marblehead: Micah Publications, 1992); Dan Cohen-Sherbok, ‘Hope for the Animal Kingdom: A Jewish Vision’, in A Communion of Subjects: Animals in Religion, Science and Ethics, ed. Kimberley Patton and Paul Waldau (New York: Columbia University Press, 2006), 81–90; Ze’ev Levi, ‘Ethical Issues of Animal Welfare in Jewish Thought’, in Judaism and Environmental Ethics: A Reader, ed. Martin D. Yaffe (Plymouth: Lexington, 2001), 321–32; Norm Phelps, The Dominion of Love: Animal Rights According to the Bible (New York: Lantern Books, 2002); David Sears, The Vision of Eden: Animal Welfare and Vegetarianism in Jewish Law Mysticism (Spring Valley: Orot, 2003); Nosson Slifkin, Man and Beast: Our Relationships with Animals in Jewish Law and Thought (New York: Lambda, 2006).

  29.Talmud Bavli, Bava Metzia, 85:71.

  30.Christop
her Chapple, Nonviolence to Animals, Earth and Self in Asian Traditions (New York: State University of New York Press, 1993); Panchor Prime, Hinduism and Ecology: Seeds of Truth (London: Cassell, 1992); Christopher Key Chapple, ‘The Living Cosmos of Jainism: A Traditional Science Grounded in Environmental Ethics’, Daedalus 130:4 (2001), 207–24; Norm Phelps, The Great Compassion: Buddhism and Animal Rights (New York: Lantern Books, 2004); Damien Keown, Buddhist Ethics: A Very Short Introduction (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005), ch. 3; Kimberley Patton and Paul Waldau (eds), A Communion of Subjects: Animals in Religion, Science and Ethics (New York: Columbia University Press, 2006), esp. 179–250; Pragati Sahni, Environmental Ethics in Buddhism: A Virtues Approach (New York: Routledge, 2008); Lisa Kemmerer and Anthony J. Nocella II (eds), Call to Compassion: Reflections on Animal Advocacy from the World’s Religions (New York: Lantern, 2011), esp. 15–103; Lisa Kemmerer, Animals and World Religions (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012), esp. 56–126; Irina Aristarkhova, ‘Thou Shall Not Harm All Living Beings: Feminism, Jainism and Animals’, Hypatia 27:3 (2012), 636–50; Eva de Clercq, ‘Karman and Compassion: Animals in the Jain Universal History’, Religions of South Asia 7 (2013), 141–57.

  31.Naveh, ‘Changes in the Perception of Animals and Plants’, 11.

  3 The Human Spark

  1.‘Evolution, Creationism, Intelligent Design’, Gallup, accessed 20 December 2014, http://www.gallup.com/poll/21814/evolution-creationism-intelligentdesign.aspx; Frank Newport, ‘In US, 46 per cent Hold Creationist View of Human Origins’, Gallup, 1 June 2012, accessed 21 December 2014, http://www.gallup.com/poll/155003/hold-creationist-view-human-origins.aspx.