American Aurora

by Richard N. Rosenfeld

  Fortunately, Franklin is on the scene to deflect Laurens’ provocations.

  Monday, May 14, 1781. Today, from Paris, Ben Franklin writes the Marquis de Lafayette:

  I hope that by this time, the ship which has the honor of bearing your name, is safely arrived. She carries clothing for nearly twenty thousand men, with arms, ammunition, &c. which will supply some of your wants, and Colonel Laurens will bring a considerable addition …

  This Court continues firm and steady in its friendship, and does everything it can for us. Can we not do a little more for ourselves?1253

  Tuesday, May 22, 1781. Today, George Washington and French General Rochambeau meet at Wethersfield, Connecticut, to plan the coming campaign. George Washington still favors an attack on New York City. From notes of the meeting:

  ROCHAMBEAU—Should the squadron from the West Indies arrive in these seas … what operations will General Washington have in view, after a union of the French army with his own?

  WASHINGTON—The Enemy, by several detachments from New York, have reduced their force at that post … [I]t is thought advisable to form a junction of the French and American Armies down to the vicinity of New York to be ready to take advantage of any opportunity which the weakness of the enemy may afford. Should the West Indies Fleet [under Admiral de Grasse] arrive upon the Coast, the force thus combined may either proceed in the operation against New Y[or]k, or may be directed against the enemy in some other quarter …1254

  Monday, May 28, 1781. Today, George Washington writes the French Minister in Philadelphia, the Chevalier de La Luzerne:

  [O]ur object is New York. The Season, the difficulty and expense of Land transportation, and the continual waste of men in every attempt to reinforce the Southern States, are almost insuperable objections … ; nor do I see how it is possible to give effectual support to those States and avert the evils which threaten them while we are inferior in naval force in these Seas.1255

  Friday, June 1, 1781. Today, Lieutenant Colonel John Laurens, still accompanied by Thomas Paine, departs the French port of Brest for the United States aboard the frigate Résolu. Tom Paine:

  The event of Colonel Laurens’s mission, with the aid of the venerable Minister, Franklin, was that France gave in money, as a present, six millions of livres, and ten millions more as a loan, and agreed to send a fleet of not less than thirty sail of the line, at her own expense, as an aid to America. Colonel Laurens and myself returned from Brest the first of June following, taking with us two millions and a half of livres (upwards of one hundred thousand pounds sterling) of the money given, and convoying two ships with stores.1256

  Monday, June 11, 1781. Today, from Rhode Island, French General Rochambeau writes French Admiral de Grasse in the West Indies,

  I will not deceive you, Sir; these people are at the end of their resources; Washington will not have half the troops that he counted upon having, and I believe, although he is silent on the subject, that he has not 6,000 men; that Lafayette has not 1,000 men of the regular troops with the militia to defend Virginia; about as many are marching to join him; that General Greene has made an attack upon Camden and has been repulsed; and I am ignorant as to when and how he will rejoin Lafayette … The arrival of M. Le Comte de Grasse can save [this country]; all the means we have at hand avail nothing without his help and the naval superiority that he can secure.1257

  Today, from New York, British Commander in Chief Sir Henry Clinton writes British General Charles Cornwallis in Virginia:

  I am threatened with a siege at this post … With respect to … the enemy … it is probable they may amount to at least 20,000, besides reinforcement to the French … Thus circumstanced, I am persuaded … the sooner I concentrate my force the better. Therefore … I beg leave to recommend it to you … to take a defensive station in any healthy situation you choose (be it at Williamburg or York Town). And I would wish … the following corps may be sent to me … Two battalions of Light infantry, 43rd regiment … [&c.]1258

  Tuesday, June 12, 1781. Today, from Virginia, former congressional delegate Richard Henry Lee writes the Continental Congress that cavalry from the British Southern Army, under Charles Cornwallis, have attacked Charlottesville Virginia (seat of government since the fall of Richmond), and that Virginia Governor Thomas Jefferson has resigned and fled:

  I suppose you have been informed of the junction of the enemies forces on James river and many of their subsequent movements … [T]he enemy halted their main body in the forks of Pomunkey, and detached 500 Cavalry with an Infantryman behind each to Charlottsville where our uniformed Assembly was collected by adjournment from Richmond. The two houses were not compleated, and Mr. Jefferson had resigned his office and retired, as some of our dispersed Delegates report, when the enemy entered Charlottsville this day [and] night and dispersed the whole, taking Mr. Digges the Lieutenant Governor prisoner and some Delegates, Mr. Lyons the Judge and many others … You will then judge of the situation of this country, without either executive or Legislative authority, every thing in the greatest possible confusion … Let the Congress send [Washington] immediately to Virginia …1259

  Jefferson “resigned” (Jefferson also used this word)1260 and fled eight days ago (June 4th) when the British cavalry attacked Charlottesville, ending plans for a gubernatorial election (Jefferson’s term expired June 1st). Jefferson fled to one of his plantations, Poplar Forest, in Bedford County, where he will remain in hiding six weeks or more. Virginia’s legislature will hold hearings on this conduct.1261

  Wednesday, June 13, 1781. Today, George Washington writes French General Rochambeau:

  It is to be regretted that the Count [de Grasse]’s stay upon this coast will be limited …

  [Y]ou have in your communication to him confined our views to New York alone … [W]ill it not be best to leave him to judge … which will be the most advantageous quarter for him to make his appearance in … Should the British fleet not be there, he could follow them to the Chesapeak which is always accessible to a superior force.1262

  France (in the person of French Admiral de Grasse), not Washington, will choose to engage the British at Yorktown, Virginia.

  Friday, June 15, 1781. Today, the Continental Congress withdraws John Adams’ credentials as America’s sole minister to make peace with Great Britain. The Journals report:

  The committee reported the draft of a commission … for negotiating a peace, which being amended, was agreed to as follows: …

  That we … have thought proper to renew the powers formerly given to the said John Adams and to join four other persons in commission with him; and … by these presents do nominate, constitute, and appoint … Benjamin Franklin, John Jay, Henry Laurens, and Thomas Jefferson in addition to the said John Adams, giving and granting to them … full power and authority … relating to the establishment of peace.

  Having reduced John Adams to one of five peace commissioners, Congress gives Adams and his fellow commissioners clear instructions:

  For this purpose [of negotiating peace with Britain] you are to make the most candid and confidential communications upon all subjects to the ministers of our most generous ally, the King of France; to undertake nothing in the negotiations for peace or truce without their knowledge and concurrence; and ultimately to govern your selves by their advice and opinion, endeavoring in your whole conduct to make them sensible how much we rely upon his majesty’s influence for effectual aid in everything that may be necessary to the peace, security, and future prosperity of the United States of America.1263

  Saturday, June 16, 1781. Today, French General Rochambeau writes French Admiral de Grasse:

  General Washington has but a handful of men, which could possibly reach to about 7,000 or 8,000. The army of Cornwallis is in the heart of Virginia, between Richmond and Fredericksburg … You can well understand that under these conditions how urgent it is that you bring some troops with you; this country is at bay, all its resources are failing at the same time: the continental paper is
worth absolutely nothing.1264

  Monday, June 18, 1781. Today, a French army of 4,400 soldiers, under General Rochambeau, starts its march south from Rhode Island to join George Washington’s two-thousand-man Continental army near New York City.1265

  Wednesday, June 20, 1781. Today, France liberates Richmond and the rest of Virginia, as British General Charles Cornwallis withdraws Britain’s Southern Army to a point of possible embarkation for New York (accommodating Sir Henry Clinton’s fear that French reinforcements of Washington may imperil New York). Cornwallis repositions the British army at Yorktown, Virginia, where the York River opens to the Chesapeake and the Atlantic.1266

  Thursday, June 21, 1781. Today, Massachusetts congressional delegate James Lovell writes John Adams why Adams is no longer the only peace commissioner:

  France … presses us for an Arrangement … Franklin, Jay, H. Laurens, and Jefferson are added to you [as peace commissioners] … [Y]our other parchments are untouched … I presume you will be at very little Loss to come at the Clue of this Labyrinth. [Vergennes] persuaded [Congress] of the absolute Necessity of the most cordial Intercourse between him … and Suppleness [Franklin] … I must officially convey to you some Papers.1267

  Adams’ “other parchments” will, however, also be touched.

  Thursday, July 12, 1781. Today, the Continental Congress withdraws John Adams’ credentials to negotiate a commercial treaty with Britain. The Journals report:

  A motion was made by Mr. Madison, seconded by Mr. Mathews, That the [commerce] commission and instructions for negotiating a treaty of commerce between these United States and Great Britain given to the honourable John Adams on the 29 day of September, 1779, be and they are hereby revoked.

  On the question to agree to this, the yeas and nays being required … So it was resolved in the affirmative [20 yeas to 6 nays].1268

  Friday, July 13, 1781. Today, Massachusetts congressional delegate James Lovell writes John Adams’ wife, Abigail:

  [Y]our all [Mr. Adams] is not servile enough to gain the unbounded affection of the foreign Court at which he resided when he had the Correspondence which produced the two Resolves of Congress … [Y]ou would have found that [the Count de Vergennes] wrote two Letters in a pet against Mr. A[dams] to old F[ran]k-l[i]n and that the latter had also written a most unkind and stabbing one hither which he was under no necessity of doing, as he needed only to have transmitted the Papers given to him for the Purpose by the former.1269

  Sunday, July 15, 1781. Today, George Washington writes Richard Henry Lee of Virginia:

  The fatal policy of short enlistmts … is now shedding its baneful influence … [N]ot half the Men which were required to be with the Army as recruits for the Continental Batt[alio]ns by the first day of Jan[uar]y last are yet arrived—and of those asked by me from the Militia, not one is come.1270

  As an adult, Benny Bache will write:

  It may be insisted here that Mr. Washington had under him a few and bad troops, and that his situation was always destitute. But were all this true, is it not part of a general to create everything; resources, skill, courage, ardor, and numbers. This was the talent of Henry IV of France …1271

  Saturday, July 21, 1781. Today, from Philadelphia, Massachusetts congressional delegate James Lovell writes another letter to John Adams, this time about the loss of Adams’ commerce commission:

  The whole of the Proceedings here in regard to y[ou]r two commissions are, I think, ill judged, but I persuade myself no dishonour intended. [T]he business greatly in every View chagrins me. [T]his you will have learnt from my former Letters written in an half-light.1272

  Today, George Washington writes French Admiral the Comte de Grasse:

  I have the honor to inform you that the allied Armies have formed a junction and taken a position about Ten miles above the enemy’s posts on the North end of [New] York Island … The French Force consists of 4400 Men. The American is at this time very small …1273

  George Washington has but two thousand men!1274

  Monday, July 30, 1781. George Washington doesn’t want to move south. Today, he writes the Marquis de Lafayette:

  [F]rom the change of circumstances with which the removal of part of the Enemy’s force from Virginia to New York will be attended, it is more than probable that we shall intirely change our plan of operations. I think we have already effected … substantial relief to the southern States by obliging the enemy to recall a considerable part of their force from thence. Our views must now be turned towards endeavouring to expel them totally from those States if we find ourselves incompetent to the siege of New York …

  I approve your resolution to reinforce General Greene …1275

  It is not George Washington’s army but rather Rochambeau’s that caused the withdrawal of British troops from the south. Likewise, it is not George Washington’s army but General Nathanael Greene’s that has been clearing the British from the Carolinas.1276 Tom Paine:

  Mr. Washington had the nominal rank of Commander in Chief, but he was not so in fact. He had, in reality, only a separate command. He had no controul over, or direction of the army to the northward under Gates that captured Burgoyne [at Saratoga], nor of that to the South, under Green, that recovered the southern States. The nominal rank, however, … makes him appear as the soul and center of all military operations in America.1277

  Thursday, August 2, 1781. Today, George Washington writes the Continental Congress:

  Congress will readily conceive the disagreeable situation in which I find myself, when they are informed that I am not stronger at this advanced period of the Campaign than when the Army first moved out of their Winter Quarters … [N]ot a single Man had come in from Massachusetts … [O]nly 176 from Connecticut had arrived at that post yesterday. In short, not a single Militia Man from any State has joined the Army, except the few just mentioned, about 80 Levies of New York, and about 200 State Troops of Connecticut, both of which were upon the Lines previous to my leaving our Winter Cantonments …

  The General Return for June, which I have lately sent by Capt. Roberts to the Board of War … exhibits an Army upon paper rather than an operating Force … [T]he Civil departments having been totally destitute of Money, have been unable to hire or pay the Men necessary for their uses …1278

  Benny Bache will (as an adult) write:

  A commander in chief … should be able to choose decisive positions; he should shine in the arts of subsisting and recruiting an army … in a talent for obtaining information; in the invention of stratagems; in the supply of expedients for the cases (and many are the cases) untouched by the general rules; in inspiring a soul into an army; and in the provoking an enemy to disadvantageous action.

  What are the talents however which Mr. Washington has displayed … ? Let us read … his diligent correspondence for three long years and a half and doubtless omitting nothing calculated (according to his maturer judgment) for advancing his reputation.—Did he ever anticipate that experience of which we have been speaking; did he even always keep pace with it; did he detect the impropriety of many professional measures which were imposed on him by Congress and others; does he animate us? What still life for three years and a half! We find that the time passes, but we scarcely perceive that he is at war; and if he ever seems a general, it is because he has to contend with those who were not. He relates, he argues, and sometimes he even projects; but how seldom does he act with success.1279

  Wednesday, August 8, 1781. Today, a French fleet of twenty-eight ships of the line, under French Admiral the Comte de Grasse, bearing a French army of 4,600, under French Major General the Marquis de St. Simon, heads north from the West Indies to join another French fleet of eight ships of the line, under French Admiral the Comte de Barras, which will head south from Newport, Rhode Island. Another French army of four thousand, under French General the Comte de Rochambeau, has already left Newport, Rhode Island, for the march south. These French fleets and French armies all follow orders from France to support
George Washington.1280

  Sunday, August 12, 1781. Today, in Geneva, Switzerland, Benny Bache turns twelve years old. He is a bit homesick. This week, he will write his grandfather,

  [I] know that it is impossible for you to write me because of your busy schedule, but I would very much like to have news from you, and I beg you to write me some as soon as it will be possible for you and if you have the time …1281

  Tuesday, August 14, 1781. Today, George Washington writes in his diary:

  Matters having now come to a crisis and a decisive plan to be determined on, I was obliged, from the shortness of Count de Grasse’s promised stay on this coast, the apparent disinclination in their Naval Officers to force the harbour of New York and the feeble compliance of the States to my requisitions for Men, hitherto, and little prospect of greater exertion in the future, to give up all idea of attacking New York; and instead thereof to remove the French Troops and a detachment from the American Army to the Head of Elk [at the head of the Chesapeake Bay, Maryland] to be transported to Virginia for the purpose of co-operating with the [French] force from the West Indies against the [British] Troops in that State.1282

  Thursday, August 16, 1781. Today, from Paris, Ben Franklin writes John Adams in the Netherlands that Adams is no longer sole commissioner to negotiate peace with Great Britain:

  I have the honor to inform your excellency that I yesterday received despatches … ordering me upon an additional service, that of being joined with yourself and Messrs. Jay, H[enry]. Laurens and T. Jefferson in negotiations for peace … I shall be glad to learn from your excellency what steps have already been taken in this important business.1283