American Aurora
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Stephen, Adam
Steuben, Baron von
Stewart, Archibald
Stewart, Charles
Stewart, John (“Walking”)
Stirling, Lord
Stockton, John
Stoddert, Benjamin
Stony Point, Battle of
Stormont, Lord. See Murray, David
Strahan, William
Strohecker, John
Strubing, Philip
Stuart, Archibald
Suffolk Resolves
suffrage. See elections
Sugar Act of
Sullivan, John
Summers, Captain
Sun (Pittsfield)
Sunbury and Northumberland [Penn.] Gazette
“Surgo ut prosim” (Aurora motto)
Sweden
Sweyer, Nicholas
Talleyrand, Charles Maurice de
and Adams’ peace envoys
letter of grievances
and XYZ affair
Tammany Society
taxation
of American colonies
church-state separation and
Duane on
French
Paine on
Pennsylvanian rebellion. See Fries’ rebellion
property
for war with France
“taxation without representation,”
Taylor, John
Tench, Colonel
term limits
accountability and
Federal Constitution and
Franklin vs. Adams on
Hamilton on lifetime
Jefferson on presidential
Pennsylvania constitution and
Ternay, Le Chevalier de
Thatcher, George
Third Estate (France)
Thomas, Joseph
Thoughts on Government Applicable to the Present State of the American Colonies (Adams)
three-branched government. See checks and balances; specific branches
Time Piece. See New York Time Piece
Tingey, Thomas
Tone, Theobald Wolfe
Townshend, Charles
Townshend, Thomas
Tracy, Uriah
trade. See mercantilism; privateering
treason
Arnold’s at West Point
Dallas on legal misapplication of term
Fries presidential reprieve
Fries trials
see also Alien and Sedition Acts
Treasury Department, U.S.
Duane’s son as secretary
financial irregularities
politically linked dismissals
records destroyed by fire
Treaty of Paris (1763)
Treaty of Paris (1783)
articles/signing/ratification
Treaty of 1778. See Franco-American Treaties of Alliance and Amity and Commerce of
Trenton (N.J.)
Trenton, Battle of
trial by jury
tricolor cockade
French Revolution
and Fries treason charges
mob attack on
as Republican badge
Trissler, G.
Troops of Horse
True American (newspaper)
Truxton, Thomas
Tucker, Samuel
Tudor, William
Turgot, Anne-Robert-Jacques
unicameralism
Adams (Abigail) arguments against
Adams (John) arguments against, (see also bicameralism)
Franklin advocacy
French
Jefferson advocacy
Massachusetts leanings
Paine advocacy
Pennsylvania
Turgot advocacy
Union (ship)
United Irishmen
Alien and Sedition repeal petitions
Duane and
Federalist press attacks on
meeting announcement
seditious riot trial
United States (ship)
condemned as unseaworthy
universal male suffrage
University of Pennsylvania
Vainqueur (ship)
Valley Forge (Pa.).
Vanderkemp, Francis Adrian
Varnum, Joseph Bradley
Vergennes, Charles Gravier, Comte de
and Adams in France
Adams’ dislike of
complaint on Adams’ conduct
and American currency devaluation
and British-American peace negotiations
and embargoed arms shipment to America
Franklin relationship
and Laurens mission
Paine on
Vermont. See Lyon, Matthew
Vermont Gazette
veto power
French executive branch
presidential
Victoire (ship)
View of the Conduct of the Executive, A (Monroe)
Virginia
American Revolution action
anti-French war petition
army troop breaking of presses
church-state separation
Monroe elected governor
rejection of Alien and Sedition Acts
Republican newspaper
seditious libel prosecution
slave rebellion
see also Yorktown Campaign
Virginia Capes, Battle of the
Virginia Resolutions. See Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions
Volney, Constantin-François
Voltaire
voting districts. See representation
voting rights. See elections
Walpole, Horace
war buildup (1798-99)
Adams’ reversal measures
Adams’ speeches
anti-French moves, summary of
arms/ammunition procurements
commerce sanctions
congressional reactions
and declaration of war
Democratic-Republican opposition
fast and prayer day proclamations
Federalist backing
Federalist preventive war argument
first naval engagement
French consuls’ recognition revoked
French negotiation bids
legislation, (see also Alien and Sedition Acts)
Marine Corps formation
militia arming
naturalization residency extension
Navy Department establishment
opponents. See peace movement
peace envoys
meetings in France
travel to France
treaty
provisional army. See army
taxes
tax rebellion
treaties of 1778 abrogation
U.S. vessels’ seizure rights
Washington as commander in chief
Washington on necessity
West Indies naval expedition
XYZ affair and
see also army; Fast and Prayer Day; navy; privateering
Ward, Jacob
War Department, U.S.
Dexter appointed as secretary
McHenry’s dismissal as secretary
records destroyed by fire
see also Dexter, Samuel; McHenry, James
War of
War of the French Revolution (British-French)
American neutrality
background
Nelson victory
see also privateering; war buildup
war powers
Aurora on
Federalist caucus
French Constituent Assembly on
Gallatin on
Jefferson on
Madison on
presidential provisional powers bill
Warren, James
Warren, Joseph
Washington, Augustine
Washington, Bushrod
Washington, George, 236 Adams on “great man” reputation
Adams on personal deficiencies
and Alien and Sedition Acts
Bache criticisms
birthday toasts to
colonial land speculation
congressional show of respect
death and memorials
de Kalb on personal deficiencies
on Democratic-Republican party
dislike of Bache
“Father of His Country” sobriquet
Federal Constitutional Convention presidency
Federalist press defense of
and Franco-American
Treaty of
abrogation
and Franklin’s daughter
and French and Indian War atrocity
on French threat
as French war buildup commander in chief
and hereditary Society of Cincinnati
historical reputation
Hopkinson correspondence
“I can’t tell a lie” legend
ignorance and illiteracy
on Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions
Logan meeting
as lukewarm to independence
on national unity
Paine on personal deficiencies
Philadelphia visit
Pickering on public vs. private character
on political “heresies,”
as potential
presidential candidate
refusal to mourn Franklin’s death
reserved persona
as slaveowner
suppression of private papers
on XYZ affair
on yellow fever victims
Washington, George (American Revolution)
Adams on
avoidance of battles (1778-1781)
Bache on incompetence of
charged with inactivity
Clinton on
command
command delineation
command resignation
complaint about criticism
complaints about arms and funding
complaints about troops
congressional critics
as Continental Congress delegate
disbandment of army
Duane on incompetence
Fabian tactics deplored
as “Fabius,”
Franklin’s letter of flattery
on French aid
French alliance celebration
on French-British war advantages
and French funds for troops at Yorktown
French volunteer’s appraisal of
Gates command vs.
on hopelessness of situation
Lafayette support
and Lee (Charles)
Long Island retreat
loss of Fort Washington and Fort Lee
Monmouth defeat
New Jersey retreat
New York City loss
campaign plan to regain
denial of plan
Paine on incompetence
on Pennsylvania’s lack of cooperation
and Philadelphia defense/loss
Pickering on
indecisiveness
recruitment failures
Reed on indecisiveness
Rush on weakness
supporter’s letter to
Trenton and Princeton victories
as unifying popular symbol
at Valley Forge
Wayne on incompetence
on Wayne’s Stony Point success
and Yorktown
Washington, George (as President)
anti-French actions
Aurora criticism of
British paid influences
election
Farewell Address
inauguration
Jay Treaty
Jefferson and
Monroe’s critical book on
Neutrality Proclamation of
as pro-monarchist, pro-British
refusal to seek third term
Washington, James
Washington, Lund
Washington, Martha
Washington, D.C.
Adams (Abigail)
impressions of
Adams’ reception in
British burning of
first congressional session
Washington [Pa.] Herald of Liberty
Watts, David
Way, George
Wayne, Anthony
Wayne, Caleb Barry
Weatherill, Samuel
Webster, Noah
Weems, Mason Locke
Wentworth, Paul
West Indies, (see also privateering)
West Point (N.Y.)
Wharton, Robert
Whiskey Rebellion
White, James
Wickes, Lambert
Wiley, Samuel
William and Mary College
Williams, David
Williams, John
Williams, Jonathan
Williams, Steven
Wilson, James
Wolcott, Oliver
funds misuse charges
Hamilton correspondence
resignation and dismissals
and treasury department fire
and war office fire
Worrell, Isaac
XYZ affair
delegation’s report
and U.S. war sentiment
Washington on
“Yankee Doodle” (song)
yellow fever epidemic (1798)
yellow fever epidemic (1799)
yellow fever epidemic (1800)
Yorktown Campaign (1781)
Cornwallis’ defeat
French bravery
French casualties
French fleet
French troops
Hamilton report on
prelude to
Washington reports on
“Young Lightening-Rod.” See Bache, Benjamin Franklin
youth militia. See Macpherson’s Blues
Zeigler’s plains
ABOUT THE AUTHOR
Born in Boston in 1941, the son and grandson of printers, Richard Neil Rosenfeld is an independent scholar who lives in Chestnut Hill, Massachusetts. He holds degrees from Yale, Columbia, and Boston Universities, is a Councillor at the American Antiquarian Society, and is an Associate Fellow at Yale’s Timothy Dwight College.
BEFORE THE CURTAIN RISES IN 1798
1754 America’s French and Indian War begins. Britain wars with French Canada and its Indian allies.
1763 America’s French and Indian War ends. Britain, the winner, obtains Canada from France.
1775 The American Revolution begins (April 19, Concord and Lexington).
1776 Declaration of Independence (July 4).
1778 America makes an alliance with France. France enters the war.
1783 The American Revolution ends. Britain recognizes the United States of America.
1787 Philadelphia convention drafts the U.S. Constitution.
1789 U.S. Federal Government begins operations (March 4).
George Washington and John Adams elected as first U.S. President and Vice President (April 6).
The French Revolution begins (July 14, Bastille Day).
1792 George Washington and John Adams elected to second term as President and Vice President.
1793 The French Revolution guillotines the French King (January 21).
Britain goes to war against the French Revolution (February 1).
George Washington proclaims American neutrality in the war between Britain and France (April 22).
The Reign of Terror in France (September 1793-August 1794).
1795 George Washington signs the Jay Treaty with England.
1796 France refuses to receive a new American ambassador (December 11).
1797 John Adams becomes second U.S. President (March 4).
John Adams nominates a three-man commission to negotiate with France (May 31).
Adams’ three-man commission arrives in France (Octob
er 4).
No word from Adams’ three-man commission in France (December 31).
AS THE CURTAIN RISES IN 1798
THE FEDERALISTS
Support a powerful federal government to lead the nation. Fear the French Revolution as an international threat.
Leading Federalist Newspapers
Gazette of the United States
Publisher: John Fenno
Wife: Mary Fenno
Son: John Ward Fenno
Porcupine’s Gazette
Publisher: William Cobbett
(a.k.a. Peter Porcupine)
Federalist Leaders
John Adams, U.S. President (1797–)
Wife: Abigail Adams
Son: John Quincy Adams, U.S. Minister to Prussia
George Washington, private citizen, former U.S. President (1789-1797)
Alexander Hamilton, private citizen, former Treasury Secretary (1789-1795)
Certain Federalists in the House
Jonathan Dayton, New Jersey, Speaker
Roger Griswold, Connecticut
John Allen, Connecticut
Harrison Gray Otis, Massachusetts
Certain Federalists in the Senate
James Lloyd, Maryland
James Ross, Pennsylvania
THE REPUBLICANS
Fear a powerful federal government as a threat to liberty. Support the French Revolution for its opposition to monarchy.
Leading Republican Newspaper
Philadelphia Aurora
Publisher: Benjamin Bache
Wife: Margaret Bache
Writer: William Duane
Wife: Catherine Duane
Son: William John Duane
Writer: James T. Callender
Writer: Thomas “Newgate” Lloyd
Republican Leaders
Thomas Jefferson, U.S. Vice President (1797–)
James Madison, private citizen, former Republican House Leader (1789-1797)
James Monroe, private citizen, former U.S. Minister to France (1794-1796)
Certain Republicans in the House
Albert Gallatin, Pennsylvania, Republican House Leader
Matthew Lyon, Vermont
Edward Livingston, New York
Certain Republicans in the Senate
Stevens Thomson Mason, Virginia John Langdon, New Hampshire
CERTAIN EUROPEAN REFUGEES IN AMERICA IN 1798
From Ireland: writers William Duane and Thomas “Newgate” Lloyd of the Aurora, editor John Daly Burk of the New York Time Piece. From Scotland: writer James T. Callender of the Aurora. From England: lawyer Thomas Cooper. From France: political philosopher Constantin-François Volney, scholar Médéric-Louis-Elie Moreau de St. Méry. From Poland: writer Julien Niemcewicz, General Tadeusz Kosciuszko.
AMERICAN AURORA: A DEMOCRATIC-REPUBLICAN RETURNS. THE SUPPRESSED HISTORY OF OUR NATION’s BEGINNINGS AND THE HEROIC NEWSPAPER THAT TRIED TO REPORT IT. Copyright © 1997 by Richard N. Rosenfeld. All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America. No part of this book may be used or reproduced in any manner whatsoever without written permission except in the case of brief quotations embodied in critical articles or reviews.