The Major Works (English Library)

by Sir Thomas Browne

  CHAP.II. A further illustration of the same

  CHAP.III. Of the second cause of Popular Errors; the erroneous disposition of the people

  Having thus declared the fallible nature of man even from his first production, we have beheld the generall cause of error. But as for popular errors, they are more neerly founded upon an erroneous inclination of the people; as being the most deceptible part of mankinde, and ready with open arms to receive the encroachments of error. Which condition of theirs although deduceable from many grounds, yet shall we evidence it, but from a few, and such as most neerly and undeniably declare their natures.

  How unequall discerners of truth they are, and openly exposed unto error, will first appear from their unquallified intellectuals, unable to umpire the difficulty of its dissentions. For error to speak strictly, is a firm assent unto falsity. Now whether the object whereunto they deliver up their assent be true or false, they are incompetent judges.

  For the assured truth of things is derived from the principles of knowledge, and causes, which determine their verities. Whereof their uncultivated understandings, scarce holding any theory, they are but bad discerners of verity; and in the numerous track of error, but casually do hit the point and unity of truth.

  Their understanding is so feeble in the discernment of falsities, and averting the errors of reason, that it submitteth unto the fallacies of sense, and is unable to rectifie the error of its sensations. Thus the greater part of mankinde having but one eye of sence and reason,19 conceive the earth farre bigger then the Sun, the fixed Stars lesser then the Moon, their figures plain, and their spaces equidistant. For thus their sence informeth them, and herein their reason cannot rectifie them; and therefore hopelesly continuing in their mistakes, they live and die in their absurdities; passing their daies in perverted apprehensions, and conceptions of the world, derogatory unto God, and the wisdome of the creation.

  Again, Being so illiterate in point of intellect, and their sense so incorrected, they are farther indisposed ever to attain unto truth, as commonly proceeding in those waies, which have most reference unto sense, and wherein there lieth most notable and popular delusion.

  For being unable to weild the intellectuall arms of reason, they are fain to betake themselves unto wasters and the blunter weapons of truth; affecting the grosse and sensible waies of doctrine, and such as will not consist with strict and subtile reason. Thus unto them a piece of Rhetorick is a sufficient argument of Logick, an Apologue20 of Æsope, beyond a Syllogisme in Barbara;21 parables then propositions, and proverbs more powerfull then demonstrations. And therefore are they led rather by example, then precept; receiving perswasions from visible inducements, before intellectual instructions. And therefore also they judge of humane actions by the event; for being uncapable of operable circumstances, or rightly to judge the prudentiality of affairs, they only gaze upon the visible successe, and thereafter condemn or cry up the whole progression. And so from this ground in the Lecture of holy Scripture, their apprehensions, are commonly confined unto the literall sense of the text; from whence have ensued the grosse and duller sort of heresies. For not attaining the deuteroscopy, and second intention of the words, they are fain to omit their superconsequencies, coherencies, figures, or tropologies,22 and are not sometime perswaded by fire beyond their literalities. And therefore also things invisible, but unto intellectuall discernments, to humour the grossenesse of their comprehensions, have been degraded from their proper forms, and God himself dishonoured into manull23 expressions. And so likewise being unprovided, or unsufficient for higher speculations, they will alwaies betake themselves, unto sensible representations, and can hardly be restrained the dulnesse of Idolatry. A sinne or folly not only derogatory unto God, but men; overthrowing their reason, as well as his divinity. In brief, a reciprocation, or rather an Inversion of the creation; making God one way, as he made us another; that is, after our Image, as he made us after his.

  Moreover, their understanding thus weak in it self, and perverted by sensible delusions, is yet farther impaired by the dominion of their appetite; that is, the irrationall and brutall part of the soul, which lording it over the sovereign faculty, interrupts the actions of that noble part, and choaks those tender sparks, which Adam hath left them of reason. And therefore they do not only swarm with errors, but vices depending thereon. Thus they commonly affect no man any farther than he deserts his reason, or complies with their aberrancies. Hence they embrace not vertue for it self, but its reward; and the argument from pleasure or utility is farre more powerfull, then that from vertuous honesty; which Mahomet and his contrivers well understood, when he set out the felicity of his heaven, by the contentments of flesh, and the delights of sense: slightly passing over the accomplishment of the soul, and the beatitude of that part which earth and visibilities too weakly affect.24 But the wisdom of our Saviour, and the simplicity of his truth proceeded another way; defying the popular provisions of happinesse from sensible expectations; placing his felicity in things removed from sense, and the intellectuall enjoyment of God. And therefore the doctrine of the one was never afraid of Universities, or endeavoured the banishment of learning like the other. And though Galen doth sometime nibble at Moses, and beside the Apostate Christian,25 some Heathens have questioned his Philosophicall part or treaty of the Creation: Yet is there surely no reasonable Pagan, that will not admire the rationall and well grounded precepts of Christ; whole life as it was conformable unto his doctrine, so was that unto the highest rules of reason; and must therefore flourish in the advancement of learning, and the perfection of parts best able to comprehend it.

  Again, Their individuall imperfections being great, they are moreover enlarged by their aggregation; and being erroneous in their single numbers once hudled together, they will be error it self. For being a confusion of knaves and fools, and a farraginous26 concurrence of all conditions, tempers, sex, and ages; it is but naturall if their determinations be monstrous, and many waies inconsistent with truth. And therefore wise men have alwaies applauded their own judgement, in the contradiction of that of the people; and their soberest adversaries, have ever afforded them the stile of fools and mad men;27 and to speak impartially, their actions have often made good these Epithites. Had Orestes been Judge, he would not have acquitted that Lystrian rabble of madnesse,28 who upon a visible miracle, falling into so high a conceit of Paul and Barnabas, that they termed the one Jupiter, the other Mercurius; that they brought oxen and garlands, and were hardly restrained, from sacrificing unto them; did notwithstanding suddenly after fall upon Paul, and having stoned him, drew him for dead out of the city. It might have hazarded the sides of Democritus, had he been present at that tumult of Demetrius;29 when the people flocking together in great numbers, some cried one thing, and some another, and the assembly was confused, and the most part knew not wherefore they were come together; notwithstanding, all with one voice for the space of two hours cried out, Great is Diana of the Ephesians. It had overcome the patience of Job, as it did the meeknesse of Moses, and would surely have mastered any, but the longanimity and lasting sufferance of God, Had they beheld the mutiny in the wildernesse; when after ten great miracles in Egypt, and some in the same place, they melted down their stolen ear-rings into a calf,30 and monstrously cried out, These are thy gods O Israel, that brought thee out of the land of Egypt. It much accuseth the impatiencie of Peter, who could not endure the staves of the multitude, and is the greatest example of lenity in our Saviour,31 when he desired of God forgivenesse unto those, who having one day brought him into the City in triumph, did presently after, act all dishonour upon him, and nothing could be heard but Crucifige in their courts. Certainly he that considereth these things in Gods peculiar people, will easily discern how little of truth, there is in the waies of the multitude; and though sometimes they are flattered with that Aphorisme,32 will hardly beleeve the voice of the people to be the voice of God.

  Lastly, Being thus divided from truth in themselves, they are ye
t farther removed by advenient33 deception. For true it is (and I hope shall not offend their vulgarities,) if I say they are daily mocked into error by subtler devisors, and have been expresly deluded, by all professions and ages. Thus the Priests of Elder time, have put upon them many incredible conceits, not only deluding their apprehensions, with Ariolation,34 South-saying, and such oblique Idolatries; but winning their credulities unto the literall and down-right adorement of Cats, Lizards and Beetles. And thus also in some Christian Churches, wherein is presumed an irreprovable truth, if all be true that is suspected, or half what is related, there have not wanted, many strange deceptions, and some thereof are still confessed by the name of Pious fraudes. Thus Theudas an Impostor was able to lead away four thousand into the wildernesse, and the delusions of Mahomet almost the fourth part of mankinde. Thus all heresies how grosse soever, have found a welcome with the people. For thus, many of the Jews were wrought into belief, that Herod was the Messias; and David George of Leyden and Arden, were not without a party amongst the people, who maintained the same opinion of themselves almost in our daies.

  Physitians (many at least that make profession thereof) beside divers lesse discoverable waies of fraud, have made them beleeve, there is the book of fate, or the power of Aarons brest-plate35 in Urines. And therefore hereunto they have recourse as unto the Oracle of life, the great determinator of virginity, conception, fertility, and the inscrutable infirmities of the whole body. For as though there were a seminality in Urine, or that like the seed it carried with it the Idea of every part, they foolishly conceive we visibly behold therein the Anatomy of every particle, and can thereby indigitate their affections; and running into any demands expect from us a sudden resolution in things wherein the devil of Delphos36 would demurre, and we know hath taken respite of some daies to answer easier questions.

  Saltimbancoes, Quacksalvers and Charlatans, deceive them in lower degrees. Were Æsop alive, the Piazza and Pont Neuf37 could not but speak their fallacies; mean while there are too many, whose cries cannot conceale their mischiefs. For their Impostures are full of cruelty, and worse then any other; deluding not only unto pecuniary defraudations, but the irreparable deceit of death.

  Astrologers, which pretend to be of Cabala with the starres (such I mean as abuse that worthy enquiry;) 38 have not been wanting in their deceptions. Who having wonne their belief unto principles whereof they make great doubt themselves, have made them beleeve that arbitrary events below, have necessary causes above; whereupon their credulities assent unto any prognosticks, and daily swallow the predictions of men, which considering the independencie of their causes, and contingencie in their events, are only in the prescience of God.

  Fortune tellers, Juglers, Geomancers,39 and the like incantatory impostors, though commonly men of inferiour rank, and from whom without illumination they can expect no more then from themselves, do daily and professedly delude them. Unto whom (what is deplorable in men and Christians) too many applying themselves; betwixt jest and earnest, betray the cause of truth, and insensibly make up the legionary body of error.

  Statistes and Politicians, unto whom Ragione di Stato,40 is the first considerable, as though it were their businesse to deceive the people, as a Maxime, do hold, that truth is to be concealed from them; unto whom although they reveale the visible design, yet do they commonly conceale the capitall intention. And therefore have they alway been the instruments of great designes, yet seldome understood the true intention of any; accomplishing the drifts of wiser heads, as inanimate and ignorant Agents the generall designe of the world; who though in some latitude of sense, and in a naturall cognition perform their proper actions, yet do they unknowingly concurre unto higher ends, and blindely advance the great intention of nature. Now how farre they may be kept in ignorance, a great example there is in the people of Rome, who never knew the true and proper name of their own City. For beside that common appellation received by the Citizens, it had a proper and secret name concealed from them: Cujus alterum nomen dicere secretis Ceremoniarum nefas habetur,41 saith Plinie; lest the name thereof being discovered unto their enemies, their Penates42 and Patronall gods, might be called forth by charms and incantations. For according unto the tradition of Magitians, the tutelary spirits will not remove at common appellations, but at the proper names of things whereunto they are protectors.

  Thus having been deceived by themselves, and continually deluded by others, they must needs be stuffed with errors, and even over-runne with these inferiour falsities; whereunto whosoever shall resigne their reasons, either from the root of deceit in themselves, or inability to resist such triviall ingan-nations43 from others; although their condition and fortunes may place them many Spheres above the multitude, yet are they still within the line of vulgarity, and Democraticall enemies of truth.

  CHAP.IV. Of the nearer and more Immediate Causes of popular errours, both in the wiser and common sort, Misapprehension, Fallacy, or false diduction, Credulity, Supinity, adherence unto Antiquitie, Tradition and Authoritie

  The first is a mistake, or a conception of things, either in their first apprehensions, or secondary relations. So Eve mistook the Commandient, either from the immediate injunction of God, or from the secondary narration of her husband. So might the Disciples mistake our Saviour, in his answer unto Peter, concerning the death of John, as is delivered, John 21. Peter seeing John, saith unto Jesus, Lord, and what shall this man doe? Jesus saith, If I will, that he tarry till I come, what is that unto thee? Then went this saying abroad among the brethren, that that Disciple should not die.44 Thus began the conceit and opinion of the Centaures, that is, in the mistake of the first beholders, as is declared by Servius; when some young Thessalians on horseback were beheld afarre off, while their horses watered, that is, while their heads were depressed, they were conceived by the first spectators, to be but one animall; and answerable hereunto have their pictures been drawn ever since.

  And as simple mistakes commonly beget fallacies, so men rest not in false apprehensions, without absurd and inconsequent diductions; from fallacious foundations, and misapprehended mediums, erecting conclusions no way inferrible from their premises. Now the fallacies whereby men deceive others, and are deceived themselves, the Ancients, have divided into Verball and Reall. Of the Verball, and such as conclude from mistakes of the word, although there be no lesse then six, yet are there but two thereof worthy our notation; and unto which the rest may be referred: that is the fallacies of Æquivocation and Amphibologie; which conclude from the ambiguity of some one word, or the ambiguous syntaxis of many put together. From this fallacy arose that calamitous error of the Jews, misapprehending the Prophesies of their Messias, and expounding them alwaies unto literall and temporall expectations. By this way many errors crept in and perverted the doctrine of Pythagoras, whilest men received his precepts in a different sense from his intention; converting Metaphors into proprieties, and receiving as literrall expressions, obscure and involved truths.…

  The circle of this fallacy is very large, and herein may be comprised all Ironicall mistakes; for intended expressions receiving inverted significations; all deductions from metaphors, parables, allegories, unto reall and rigid interpretations. Whereby have risen not only popular errors in Philosophy, but vulgar and senselesse heresies in Divinity; as will be evident unto any that shall examine their foundations, as they stand related by Epiphanius, Austin, or Prateolus.…

  CHAP.V. Of Credulity and Supinity

  A third cause of common Errors is the Credulity of men, that is, an easie assent, to what is obtruded, or a beleeving at first ear what is delivered by others. This is a weaknesse in the understanding, without examination assenting unto things, which from their natures and causes doe carry no perswasion; whereby men often swallow falsities for truths, dubiosities for certainties, fesibilities for possibilities, and things impossible as possibilities themselves. Which, though a weaknesse of the Intellect, and most discoverable in vulgar heads, yet hath it sometime fallen upon
wiser brains, and great advancers of truth. Thus many wise Athenians so far forgot their Philosophy, and the nature of humane production, that they descended unto beliefs, the originall of their Nation was from the Earth, and had no other beginning then from the seminality and womb of their great Mother. Thus is it not without wonder, how those learned Arabicks so tamely delivered up their belief unto the absurdities of the Alcoran. How the noble Geber, Avicenna and Almanzor, should rest satisfied in the nature and causes of earthquakes, delivered from the doctrine of their Prophet; that is, from the motion of a great Bull, upon whose hornes all the earth is poised. How their faiths could decline so low, as to concede their generations in heaven, to be made by the smell of a citron, or that the felicity of their Paradise should consist in a Jubile of copulation, that is a coition of one act prolonged unto fifty years.45 Thus is it almost beyond wonder, how the belief of reasonable creatures, should ever submit unto Idolatry: and the credulity of those men scarce credible (without presumption of a second fall) who could beleeve a Deity in the work of their own hands. For although in that ancient and diffused adoration of Idols, unto the Priests and subtiler heads, the worship perhaps might be symbolicall, and as those Images some way related unto their deities; yet was the Idolatry direct and down-right in the people; whose credulity is illimitable; who may be made beleeve that any thing is God; and may be made beleeve there is no God at all.

  And as Credulity is the cause of Error, so incredulity oftentimes of not enjoying truth; and that not only an obstinate incredulity, whereby we will not acknowledge assent unto what is reasonably inferred, but any Academicall reservation in matters of easie truth, or rather scepticall infidelity against the evidence of reason and sense. For these are conceptions befalling wise men, as absurd as the apprehensions of fools, and the credulity of the people which promiscuously swallow any thing. For this is not only derogatory unto the wisdom of God, who hath proposed the world unto our knowledge, and thereby the notion of himself, but also detractory unto the intellect, and sense of man expressedly disposed for that inquisition. And therefore hoc tantum scio quod nihil scio,46 is not to be received in an absolute sense, but is comparatively expressed unto the number of things whereof our knowledge is ignorant; nor will it acquit the insatisfaction of those which quarrell with all things, or dispute of matters concerning whose verities we have conviction from reason, or decision from the inerrable and requisite conditions of sense. And therefore if any affirm the earth doth move, and will not beleeve with us, it standeth still; because he hath probable reasons for it, and I no infallible sense nor reason against it, I will not quarrell with his assertion.47 But if like Zeno he shall walk about, and yet deny there is any motion in nature, surely that man was constituted for Anticera,48 and were a fit companion for those, who having a conceit they are dead, cannot be convicted into the society of the living.