34. For an excellent overview of the history of eugenicist ideas in the United States, see Ibram X. Kendi, Stamped from the Beginning: The Definitive History of Racist Ideas in America (New York: Nation Books, 2016).
35. Thomas Borstelmann, The Cold War and the Color Line: American Race Relations in the Global Arena (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2003), 19.
36. Mia Bay, The White Image in the Black Mind: African American Ideas About White People (New York: Oxford University Press, 2000).
37. Reena N. Goldthree, “Amy Jacques, Theodore Bilbo, and the Paradoxes of Black Nationalism,” in Global Circuits of Blackness: Interrogating the African Diaspora, ed. Jean Muteba Rahier, Percy C. Hintzen, and Felipe Smith (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2010), 156.
38. Ethel Wolfskill Hedlin, “Earnest Cox and Colonization: A White Racist’s Response to Black Emigration, 1923–1966” (Ph.D. diss., Duke University, 1974), 23–27, 48.
39. Hedlin, “Earnest Cox and Colonization,” 48, 86.
40. Gordon to Cox, March 7, 1934, Box 4, Folder 1, Cox Papers.
41. Cox to Gordon and the PME, March 10, 1934, Box 4, Folder 1, Cox Papers.
42. Gordon to Cox, March 15, 1934, Box 4, Folder 1, Cox Papers.
43. Gordon to Cox, September 19, 1934, Box 4, Folder 1, Cox Papers.
44. Elin Diamond, ed., Performance and Cultural Politics (London: Routledge, 1996), 1.
45. Hedlin, “Earnest Cox and Colonization,” 117.
46. Gordon to Cox, September 19, 1934, Box 4, Folder 1, Cox Papers.
47. Hedlin, “Earnest Cox and Colonization,” 120.
48. Gordon to Cox, February 27, 1936, Box 4, Folder 2, Cox Papers.
49. “Races: Mr. Bilbo’s Afflatus,” Time, May 8, 1939.
50. Gordon to Cox, February 3, 1937, Box 4, Folder 3, Cox Papers.
51. Grossman, Land of Hope; Trotter, The Great Migration in Historical Perspective.
52. 1930 U.S. Census, Ward 4, Cook County, Chicago, Ill., Ancestry.com subscription database, http://www.ancestry.com (accessed May 11, 2012); 1940 U.S. Census, Ward 2, Cook County, Chicago, Ill., Ancestry.com subscription database, http://www.ancestry.com (accessed May 11, 2012).
53. Gordon to Bilbo, March 15, 1938, Box 341, Folder 2, Bilbo Papers.
54. Gordon to Bilbo, March 15, 1938, Box 341, Folder 2, Bilbo Papers.
55. Waddell sued Gordon three times. After the initial lawsuit in January 1937, another injunction was brought against Gordon in February 1937. With both being dismissed for lack of evidence, Waddell filed a third lawsuit in 1938. Gordon filed a countercomplaint in March 1938. See Gordon to Cox, February 3, 1937, Box 4, Folder 3, Cox Papers. On the countercomplaint, see The Peace Movement of Ethiopia, Inc. v. Mittie Maude Lena Gordon, William Gordon, William Merriweather, and Joseph Rockmore, No. 37 S 1961, State of Illinois, Cook County in Box 1089, Folder 12, Bilbo Papers.
56. Hill, Marcus Garvey and UNIA Papers, VII:823.
57. Hedlin, “Earnest Cox and Colonization,” 126.
58. Hedlin, “Earnest Cox and Colonization,” 135; Gordon to Cox, October 9, 1938, Box 5, Folder 1, Cox Papers.
59. McCray, The Universal Negro Improvement Association.
60. Waddell and Watkins to Cox, March 4, 1938, Box 4, Cox Papers.
61. See Hill, Marcus Garvey and UNIA Papers, X:681, n. 6. Tony Martin, Message to the People: The Course of African Philosophy (Dover, Mass.: Majority Press, 1986), xv. There are significant parallels between the African School of Philosophy and the UNIA’s Liberty University (est. 1926), which was geared toward younger Garveyites. See Barbara Bair, “Renegotiating Liberty: Garveyism, Women, and Grassroots Organizing in Virginia,” in Women of the American South: A Reader, ed. Christie Farnham (New York: New York University Press, 1997).
62. Martin, Message to the People, x.
63. Waddell to Thomas Harvey, May 26, 1938, Box 2, Folder 7, Universal Negro Improvement Association Records, 1916, 1921–1989, Stuart A. Rose Manuscript Archives, and Rare Book Library, Emory University, Atlanta, Ga. (hereafter cited as UNIA Records).
64. Waddell and Watkins to Cox, March 4, 1938, Box 4, Folder 5, Cox Papers.
65. Gordon to Cox, February 3, 1937, Box 4, Folder 4, Cox Papers.
66. Waddell to Thomas Harvey, February 19, 1938, Box 2, Folder 6, UNIA Records.
67. Sitkoff, A New Deal for Blacks; Trotter, From a Raw Deal to a New Deal?
68. Gordon to Cox, June 26, 1936, Box 4, Folder 2, Cox Papers.
69. Gordon to Cox, June 26, 1936, Box 4, Folder 2, Cox Papers, 123, 138. See Gordon to Eleanor Roosevelt, December 17, 1938, Box 5, Folder 1, Cox Papers. Gordon wrote to Eleanor Roosevelt in 1938 after learning of the first lady’s work with the NAACP.
70. Gordon to Cox, June 23, 1937, Box 4, Folder 3, Cox Papers.
71. Record of the 75th Congress, January 21, 1938, CR-1938-0121, 881, 883.
72. Hedlin, “Earnest Cox and Colonization,” 129, 130.
73. Theodore Bilbo to Earnest Sevier Cox, February 17, 1938, Box 4, Folder 5, Cox Papers.
74. Bilbo to Cox, February 17, 1938, Box 4, Folder 5, Cox Papers.
75. Fitzgerald, “ ‘We Have Found a Moses.’ ”
76. Quoted in Fitzgerald, “We Have Found a Moses,” 302.
77. Gordon to Cox, June 29, 1938, Box 5, Folder 1, Cox Papers.
78. Gordon to Cox, June 19, 1938, Box 5, Folder 1, Cox Papers.
79. Deborah G. Plant, Zora Neale Hurston: A Biography of the Spirit (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 2007), 125. Also see Lawrence Levine, Black Culture and Black Consciousness: Afro-American Folk Thought from Slavery to Freedom (New York: Oxford University Press, 1977); Vincent Wimbush, ed., African Americans and the Bible: Sacred Texts and Social Textures (New York: Continuum, 2000); Eddie S. Glaude Jr., Exodus! Religion, Race, and Nation in Early Nineteenth-Century Black America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2000).
80. Diamond, Performance and Cultural Politics, 1.
81. Gordon to Cox, June 29, 1938, Box 5, Folder 1, Cox Papers.
82. U.S. Congressional Record, 76th Congress, First Session, 1939, 4659.
83. U.S. Congressional Record, 76th Congress, First Session, 1939, 4674.
84. Fitzgerald, “We Have Found a Moses,” 307–8.
85. Peace Movement of Ethiopia to Bilbo, May 22, 1938, Box 353, Folder 14, Bilbo Papers.
86. U.S. Congressional Record, 76th Congress, First Session, 1939, 4673.
87. U.S. Congressional Record, 76th Congress, First Session, 1939, 4673.
88. Gordon to Bilbo, March 7, 1939, Cox Papers, Box 5, Folder 2.
89. Gordon to Bilbo, March 7, 1939, Cox Papers, Box 5, Folder 2.
90. Hedlin, “Earnest Cox and Colonization,” 140–42.
91. Tunde Adeleke, The Case Against Afrocentrism (Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 2009), 110.
92. Quoted in U.S. Congressional Record, 76th Congress, First Session, 1939, 4651.
93. Quoted in U.S. Congressional Record, 76th Congress, First Session, 1939, 4651.
94. Hill, Marcus Garvey and UNIA Papers, VII:851, 854–55.
95. Sundiata, Brothers and Strangers, 311.
96. Gordon to Cox, July 13, 1936, Box 4, Folder 3, Cox Papers.
97. “A Petition,” March 9, 1938, Box 340, Folder 4, Bilbo Papers.
98. Waddell and Watkins to Bilbo, March 1, 1938, Box 339, Folder 2, Bilbo Papers.
99. Program at the AME Zion Church, February 3, 1939, Box 5, Folder 2, Cox Papers.
100. Allen to Bilbo, June 9, 1938, Box 354, Folder 15, Bilbo Papers.
101. Grace Elizabeth Hale, Making Whiteness: The Culture of Segregation in the South, 1890–1940 (New York: Pantheon, 1998).
102. Allen to Bilbo, September 8, 1941?, Box 1091, Folder 8, Bilbo Papers.
103. PME to Bilbo, 1939 (no month or day listed), Box 1089, Folder 12, Bilbo Papers.
104. Quoted in Statement of William A. Fergerson, November 21, 1942, FBI File No. 100-6668, National Archives, Washington, D.C.
/> 105. Gordon to Bilbo, August 5, 1939, Box 1090, Folder 8, Bilbo Papers.
106. “President of Liberia Encourages Migration of Select Race Groups,” Chicago Defender, May 6, 1939.
107. “Senate Snubs Bilbo: ‘African Plan’ Flops,” Chicago Defender, April 29, 1939; “Chicagoans Favor ‘Back to Africa’ Bill,” Chicago Defender, April 29, 1939.
108. U.S. Congressional Record, 76th Congress, First Session, 1939, 4650, 4654.
109. “Senate Snubs Bilbo”; “Senator Bilbo’s Repatriation Bill,” African Nationalist, July 5, 1939, Albert Porte Papers, Roll 2.
110. U.S. Congressional Record, 76th Congress, First Session, 1939, 4659. On Senator James Davis, see Paul B. Beers, Pennsylvania Politics Today and Yesterday: The Tolerable Accommodation (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1980), 104–6.
111. “Senate Snubs Bilbo”; “Senator Bilbo’s Repatriation Bill.”
112. See “500 Want to Go Back to Africa,” Baltimore Afro-American, April 29, 1939; Florence Murray, “Anything Except Mr. or Mrs. Bilbo’s Policy,” Chicago Defender, May 20, 1939; “Races: Mr. Bilbo’s Afflatus,” Time, May 8, 1939.
113. Ralph Matthews, “ ‘Back to Africa’ Pilgrimage Proves Barnum Was Right!” Baltimore Afro-American, April 29, 1939.
114. “500 Want to Go Back to Africa.”
115. “500 Want to Go Back to Africa.”
116. Fitzgerald, “We Have Found a Moses,” 312.
117. These UNIA men included A. L. King and Thomas Harvey.
118. Quoted in Sudiata, Brothers and Strangers, 312.
119. See Randi Storch, Working Hard for the American Dream: Workers and Their Unions, World War I to the Present (Chichester: John Wiley, 2013).
120. Matthews, “ ‘Back to Africa’ Pilgrimage Proves Barnum Was Right!”
121. “She’s 1939 Moses,” Baltimore Afro-American, April 29, 1939.
122. Sarah H. Bradford, Harriet Tubman: The Moses of Her People (Gloucester, Mass.: P. Smith, 1981); Rosemary Sadlier, Harriet Tubman: Freedom Seeker, Freedom Leader (Toronto: Dundurn Press, 2012).
123. Mrs. Jowers, “You Better Run,” in Peace Movement of Ethiopia Constitution, 37.
124. Juanita Carter, “The Battle Hymn of the Peace Movement,” in Peace Movement of Ethiopia Constitution, 27.
125. Best, Passionately Human, No Less Divine, 158.
126. McCray, The Universal Negro Improvement Association.
127. Juanita Carter, “The Land for Me,” in Peace Movement of Ethiopia Constitution, 31.
128. Albert McCall, “My Home,” in Peace Movement of Ethiopia Constitution, 34.
129. J. E. Hart, “Is My Name Down There?” in Peace Movement of Ethiopia Constitution, 36.
130. Fitzgerald, “We Have Found a Moses,” 313; Hedlin, “Earnest Cox and Colonization,” 147.
131. Henry L. West to Bilbo, September 23, 1939, Reel 246, American Colonization Society Records, Library of Congress, Washington, D.C.
132. Gordon to Bilbo, October 15, 1939, Box 1090, Folder 9, Bilbo Papers.
133. Richard Polenberg, War and Society: The United States, 1941–1945 (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood, 1980).
134. Michael Carew, Becoming the Arsenal: The American Industrial Mobilization for World War II, 1938–1942 (Lanham, Md.: University Press of America, 2010).
135. Gordon to Bilbo, October 15, 1939, Box 1090, Folder 9, Bilbo Papers.
136. Taylor, Veiled Garvey, 158–59.
Chapter 5
1. Amy Jacques Garvey to A. Balfour Linton, February 8, 1944, Box 1, Marcus Garvey Memorial Collection, Fisk University, Nashville, Tenn.
2. Hakim Adi and Marika Sherwood, eds., Pan-African History: Political Figures from Africa and the Diaspora Since 1787 (New York: Routledge, 2003); Esedebe, P. Olisanwuche, Pan-Africanism: The Idea and Movement, 1776–1991 (Washington, D.C.: Howard University Press, 1994).
3. Richard Polenberg, War and Society: The United States, 1941–1945 (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood, 1980); Nat Brandt, Harlem at War: The Black Experience in WWII (Syracuse, N.Y.: Syracuse University Press, 1996); Neil A. Wynn, The African American Experience During World War II (Lanham, Md.: Rowman & Littlefield, 2010).
4. Penny Von Eschen, Race Against Empire: Black Americans and Anticolonialism, 1937–1957 (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1997); James Meriwether, Proudly We Can Be Africans: Black Americans and Africa, 1935–1961 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2002); Lindsey R. Swindall, The Path to the Greater, Freer, Truer World: Southern Civil Rights and Anticolonialism, 1937–1955 (Gainesville: University of Florida, 2014); Carol Anderson, Bourgeois Radicals: The NAACP and the Struggle for Colonial Liberation, 1941–1960 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2015).
5. A. Philip Randolph was the president of the Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters (BSCP), the first black-led labor union. See Cornelius Bynum, A. Philip Randolph and the Struggle for Civil Rights (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2010). On the “Double V” campaign, see Rawn James Jr., The Double V: How Wars, Protest, and Harry Truman Desegregated America’s Military (New York: Bloomsbury, 2013). On the March on Washington, see David Lucander, Winning the War for Democracy: The March on Washington Movement, 1941–1946 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2014).
6. Grossman, Land of Hope; Isabel Wilkerson, The Warmth of Other Suns: The Epic Story of America’s Great Migration (New York: Random House, 2010). On CORE, see August Meier and Elliot Rudwick, CORE: A Study in the Civil Rights Movement, 1942–1968 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1973).
7. Maureen Honey, ed., Bitter Fruit: African American Women in World War II (Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 1999), 2.
8. Honey, Bitter Fruit. On the WAC, see Mattie E. Treadwell, The Women’s Army Corps (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1954); Brenda L. Moore, To Serve My Country, to Serve My Race: The Story of the Only African American WACS Stationed Overseas During World War II (New York: New York University Press, 1996); Charity Adams Earley, One Woman’s Army: A Black Officer Remembers the WAC (College Station: Texas A&M University Press, 1989); Charissa J. Threats, Nursing and Civil Rights: Gender and Race in the Army Nurse Corps (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2015).
9. Gail Lumet Buckley, American Patriots: The Story of Blacks in the Military from the Revolution to Desert Storm (New York: Random House, 2001), 295–304.
10. Karen Tucker Anderson, “Last Hired, First Fired: Black Women Workers During World War II,” Journal of American History 69 (1982): 84.
11. Mittie Maude Lena Gordon to Earnest Sevier Cox, March 2, 1942, Exhibit 142 in Report by Special Agents Francis A. Regan, Aubrey Elliott Jr., and Richard W. Axtell, FBI Investigative File No. 100-124410, National Archives, Washington, D.C.
12. Gordon to Cox, December 31, 1941, Box 6, Cox Papers.
13. Gordon to Cox, April 1, 1941, Box 6, Cox Papers; “Education: Prince with a Purpose,” Time, January 1, 1945.
14. Marika Sherwood, Kwame Nkrumah: The Years Abroad, 1935–1947 (Legon, Ghana: Freedom Publications, 1996), 54 n.27; Sir Nwafor Orizu, Liberty or Chains-Africa Must Be: An Authobiography [sic] of Akweke Abyssinia Nwafor Orizu (Anambra State, Nigeria: Horizontal Publishers, 1994).
15. Orizu, Liberty or Chains-Africa Must Be, 193–220.
16. “African Students Urge Liberation for ‘Fatherland,’” Pittsburgh Courier, September 26, 1942; Sherwood, Kwame Nkrumah, 90.
17. Adebayo Oyebade and Toyin Falola, “West Africa and the United States in Historical Perspectives,” in The United States and West Africa: Interactions and Relations, ed. Alusine Jalloh and Toyin Falola (Rochester, N.Y.: University of Rochester Press, 2008), 26; Frank Furedi, Colonial Wars and the Politics of Third World Nationalism (New York: St. Martin’s, 1994), 35.
18. Keisha N. Blain, “ ‘We Want to Set the World on Fire’: Black Nationalist Women and Diasporic Politics in the New Negro World, 1940–1944,” Journal of Social History 49, no. 1 (Fall 2015): 194–212.
19. Huggins, Harlem Renaissance
; Lewis, When Harlem Was in Vogue; Baker, Modernism and the Harlem Renaissance; Baldwin, Chicago’s New Negroes; Baldwin and Makalani, Escape from New York.
20. Josephine Moody, “We Want to Set the World on Fire,” New Negro World, January 1942.
21. Florine Wilkes, “My Race,” New Negro World, February 1943.
22. Theresa E. Young, “The Real Solution,” New Negro World, September 1943.
23. See Davies, Left of Karl Marx; McDuffie, Sojourning for Freedom; Gore, Radicalism at the Crossroads; Harris, “Running with the Reds.”
24. McDuffie, Sojourning for Freedom, 115.
25. Erik S. McDuffie, “ ‘For the Full Freedom of . . . Colored Women in Africa, Asia, and in these United States . . .’: Black Women Radicals and the Practice of a Black Women’s International,” Palimpsest: A Journal on Women, Gender and the Black International 1 (2012): 8.
26. Rod Bush, We Are Not What We Seem: Black Nationalism and Class Struggle in the American Century (New York: New York University Press, 1998).
27. Peace Movement of Ethiopia Constitution, 33.
28. Ethel M. Collins, “Liberty,” New Negro World, January 1942.
29. Eustance G. Campbell, “Wake Up Negro,” New Negro World, July 1942.
30. Robert A. Hill, “Black Zionism: Marcus Garvey and the Jewish Question,” in African Americans and Jews in the Twentieth Century: Studies in Convergence and Conflict, ed. V. P. Franklin (Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 1998).
31. Campbell, “Wake Up Negro” (capitalizations in the original text).
32. Lemelle and Kelley, Imagining Home, 7.
33. Frank Guridy, Forging Diaspora: Afro-Cubans and African Americans in a World of Empire and Jim Crow (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2010), 4.
34. Collins, “Liberty.”
35. Collins, “Liberty.”
36. Elaine Cooper, New Negro World, January 1942. On Garveyism in Canada, see Carla Marano, “ ‘Rising Strongly and Rapidly’: The Universal Negro Improvement Association in Canada, 1919–1940,” Canadian Historical Review 91 (2010): 233–59.
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