37. Theresa E. Young, “The Real Solution,” New Negro World, September 1943.
38. Edith Allen, “Ga. Prisoner Chained to Tree,” New Negro World, October 1941.
39. Collins, “Liberty.”
40. Adeleke, UnAfrican Americans; Moses, Alexander Crummell.
41. E. Frances White, “Africa on My Mind: Gender, Counter Discourse and African-American Nationalism,” Journal of Women’s History 2 (1990): 73–97.
42. Barbara Bush, Imperialism, Race, and Resistance: Africa and Britain, 1919–1945 (New York: Routledge, 1999), 14.
43. Florine Wilkes, “Our Condition,” New Negro World, March 1943. Stephanie Batiste, Darkening Mirrors: Imperial Representation in Depression-Era African American Performance (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 2011), 258.
44. Madhu Dubey, Black Women Novelists and the Nationalist Aesthetic (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1994), 25.
45. Adelia Ireland, “Arise,” New Negro World, July 1942.
46. Ethel M. Collins, “A Tribute to the Late Marcus Garvey,” New Negro World, July 1942.
47. Moses, The Golden Age of Black Nationalism, 156–57; George Shepperson, “Ethiopianism and African Nationalism,” Phylon 14 (1953): 9–18; Drake, The Redemption of Africa and Black Religion; Moses, Afrotopia, 26–27.
48. J. P. Giddings, “Have I a Place in My Father’s House?” New Negro World, March 1942.
49. Collins, “Liberty.”
50. McDuffie, Sojourning for Freedom, 3–4.
51. Ireland, “Arise.”
52. “Elinor White, State Commissioner of Illinois, Make Stiring [sic] Appeal to Black Women and Men All Over the World,” New Negro World, May 1942.
53. Florine Wilkes, “To Black Men Everywhere,” New Negro World, November 1944 (capitalizations in the original text).
54. James Stewart, “To the Officers, Members and Friends of the Association and of the Race,” New Negro World, March 1943; Erik S. McDuffie, “Garveyism in Cleveland, Ohio and the History of the Diasporic Midwest, 1920–1975,” African Identities 9, no. 2 (2011): 163–82.
55. McDuffie, “Garveyism in Cleveland, Ohio,” 176.
56. Ethel Collins to Officers, Members and Friends of the UNIA and of the Race, August 15, 1943, Box 1, Marcus Garvey Memorial Collection, Fisk University, Nashville, Tenn.
57. See Robert Carr, Black Nationalism in the New World: Reading the African American and West Indian Experience (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 2002).
58. Veronica Marie Gregg, “ ‘How with This Rage Shall Beauty Hold a plea’: The Writings of Miss Amy Beckford Bailey as Moral Education in the Era of Jamaican Nation-Building,” Small Axe 23 (June 2007): 16–33.
59. Jennifer Brown MacLeavy, “Amy Beckford Bailey: A Biography,” Jamaican Historical Review 18 (1993): 31–39.
60. Paula Baker, “The Domestication of Politics: Women and American Political Society, 1790–1920,” American Historical Review 89, no. 3 (1984): 622.
61. Amy Bailey, “Marcus Garvey,” Jamaica Gleaner, October 21, 1978, 8.
62. Lara Putnam, Radical Moves: Caribbean Migrants and the Politics of Race in the Jazz Age (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2013).
63. Amy Bailey, “Are We Satisfied? (Part I),” Public Opinion, January 29, 1938, 10.
64. Jennifer Brown MacLeavy, “Amy Beckford Bailey: A Biography,” Jamaican Historical Review 18 (1993): 31–39.
65. Amy Bailey, “Don’t Shoot—Educate!” Public Opinion, July 2, 1938, 7, 11.
66. Amy Bailey, “Letter to the Editor: This Colour Question,” Daily Gleaner, February 18, 1944.
67. Delia Jarret-Macauley, The Life of Una Marson, 1905–1965 (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1998), 37.
68. Quoted in Jarret-Macauley, The Life of Una Marson, 161.
69. Tiffany Ruby Patterson and Robin D. G. Kelley, “Unfinished Migrations: Reflections on the African Diaspora and the Making of the Modern World,” African Studies Review 43, no. 1 (April 2000): 11–45; Lawrence Grossberg, “On Postmodernism and Articulation: An Interview with Stuart Hall,” in Stuart Hall: Critical Dialogues in Cultural Studies, ed. David Morley and Kuan-Hsing Chen (New York: Routledge, 2005), 131–50.
70. Guridy, Forging Diaspora, 4.
71. Frederick Cooper, Colonialism in Question: Theory, Knowledge, History (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2005), 27.
72. Hakim Adi, West Africans in Britain, 1900–1960: Nationalism, Pan-Africanism, and Communism (London: Lawrence & Wishart, 1998); Bill Schwarz, ed., West Indian Intellectuals in Britain (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2003).
73. Hakim Adi, “Amy Ashwood and the Nigerian Progress Union,” in Gendering the African Diaspora: Women, Culture, and Historical Change in the Caribbean and Nigerian Hinterland, ed. Judith A. Byfield, LaRay Denzer, and Antea Morrison (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2010), 200.
74. Adi, “Amy Ashwood and the Nigerian Progress Union.” Also see Minkah Makalani, In the Cause of Freedom: Radical Black Internationalism from Harlem to London, 1917–1939 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2011); Susan D. Pennybacker, From Scottsboro to Munch: Race and Political Culture in 1930s Britain (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2009).
75. Adi, “Amy Ashwood and the Nigerian Progress Union,” 200.
76. “Amy Ashwood Garvey,” New York Amsterdam News, October 20, 1926; Display ad for “Hey Hey,” New York Amsterdam News, November 3, 1926; “Mme. Garvey’s Show a Hit at the Lafayette,” New York Amsterdam News, November 10, 1926.
77. Errol G. Hill and James V. Hatch, A History of African American Theater (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2003), 278.
78. Hill and Hatch, A History of African American Theater.
79. Makalani, In the Cause of Freedom, 196; Matera, Black London, 107.
80. The IASB was previously the International African Friends of Abyssinia (IAFA).
81. “Mrs. Garvey at Trafalgar Square,” Jamaican Gleaner, September 11, 1935.
82. Quoted in Martin, Amy Ashwood Garvey, 143.
83. Quoted in Adi and Sherwood, Pan-African History, 72.
84. See Martin, Race First; Martin, Amy Ashwood.
85. On interracialism, see Lauren Kientz Anderson, “A Nauseating Sentiment, a Magical Device, or a Real Insight? Interracialism at Fisk University in 1930,” Perspectives on the History of Higher Education 29 (2012): 75–112. My use of the term in this context does not imply that Ashwood advocated slow gradual change or accommodationism.
86. Fitzroy Andre Baptiste, “Amy Ashwood Garvey and Afro-West Indian Labor in the United States Emergency Farm and War Industries’ Programs of World War II, 1943–1945,” www.africamigration.com/archive_02/f_baptiste.htm (accessed October 10, 2013). On Smith, see Judith Stein, The World of Marcus Garvey: Race and Class in Modern Society (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press), 260.
87. “Mrs. Garvey Still Alive with Crusade,” New York Amsterdam, March 4, 1944.
88. Baptiste, “Amy Ashwood Garvey and Afro-West Indian Labor.”
89. Constance Curtis, “Women’s International Magazine Planned as One Avenue to Lead to World Unity,” New York Amsterdam News, April 1, 1944.
90. Maymie De Mena Aiken to James R. Stewart, January 22, 1942, Hanif Wahab Collection (Unclassified), Charles H. Wright Museum of African American History, Detroit, Mich.
91. Nicole Bourbonnais, “Our Joan of Arc: Women, Gender, and Authority in the Harmony Division of the UNIA” (unpublished manuscript in author’s possession).
92. Bourbonnais, “Our Joan of Arc.”
93. Bourbonnais, “Our Joan of Arc.”
94. Courtney Morris, “Becoming Creole, Becoming Black: Migration, Diasporic Self-Making, and the Many Lives of Madame Maymie Leona Turpeau de Mena,” Women, Gender and Families of Color 4, no. 2 (Fall 2016): 171–95.
95. Taylor, Veiled Garvey, 119–24.
96. Adler, “ ‘Always Leading Our Men in Service and Sacrifice,’ ” 369; Taylor, Veiled Garvey
, 143–74; Amy Jacques Garvey, Garvey and Garveyism (Kingston, Jamaica: A. J. Garvey, 1963).
97. George E.Eaton, Alexander Bustamante and Modern Jamaica (Kingston, Jamaica: LMH Publishers, 2000), 40–42.
98. Taylor, Veiled Garvey, 158–59.
99. United States of America v. Mittie Maud Lena Gordon, Reply Brief for Appellants, Box 34, Cox Papers.
100. “FBI Accuses 80 in Chicago of Part in Seditious Activities,” Baltimore Afro-American, September 26, 1942. Several activist men were also charged with violating draft laws.
101. Hedlin, “Earnest Cox and Colonization,” 154.
102. See United States v. Gordon et al., 138 F.2d 174 (7th Cir. October 9, 1943).
103. Amy Jacques Garvey to Hilbert Keys, April 5, 1944, Amy Jacques Collection, Box 1, Charles Blockson Collection, Temple University, Philadelphia, Pa.
104. Jacques Garvey to Bilbo, March 26, 1944, Box 15, Folder 4, Marcus Garvey Memorial Collection, Fisk University, Nashville, Tenn.
105. Manning Marable, Black Leadership (New York: Columbia University Press, 1988), 106.
106. Jacques Garvey to Harold Moody, April 17, 1944, Box 2, Folder 10, Garvey Memorial Collection.
107. Jacques Garvey to Moody, April 17, 1944, Box 2, Folder 10, Garvey Memorial Collection.
108. Jacques Garvey to Jarrett, April 14, 1944, Box 2, Folder 5, Garvey Memorial Collection.
109. Douglas Brinkley and David R. Facey-Crowther, eds., The Atlantic Charter (New York: St. Martin’s, 1994).
110. Anderson, Eyes Off the Prize, 17; Immanuel Geiss, Pan African Movement: A History of Pan-Africanism in America, Europe, and Africa, trans. Ann Keep (New York: Africana Publishing Company, 1974).
111. Anderson, Eyes Off the Prize, 17.
112. Von Eschen, Race Against Empire, 25–26.
113. Quoted in Anderson, Eyes Off the Prize, 17.
114. Jacques Garvey to James A. Blades Jr., February 14, 1944, Box 1, Folder 3, Garvey Memorial Collection.
115. Jacques Garvey to Father Divine, February 8, 1944, Box 1, Folder 7, Garvey Memorial Collection.
116. Jacques Garvey to Hilbert Keys, May 3, 1944, Box 2, Folder 7, Garvey Memorial Collection.
117. Amy Jacques Garvey to Hilbert Keys, June 30, 1944, Box 2, Folder 7, Garvey Memorial Collection; Amy Jacques Garvey to Hilbert Keys, June 30, 1944, Box 1, Folder 23, Amy Jacques Garvey Collection, Charles Blockson Collection, Temple University, Philadelphia.
118. Jacques Garvey to Keys, April 5, 1944, Box 2, Folder 7, Garvey Memorial Collection; Jacques Garvey to Keys, May 3, 1944, Box 2, Folder 7, Garvey Memorial Collection.
119. Jacques Garvey to Keys, April 5, 1944, Box 2, Folder 7, Garvey Memorial Collection.
120. James Blades to Jacques Garvey, August 7, 1944, Box 1, Folder 3, Garvey Memorial Collection.
121. Jacques Garvey to Blades, August 14, 1944, Box 1, Folder 3, Garvey Memorial Collection.
122. Jacques Garvey to Keys, March 11, 1944, Box 2, Folder 7, Garvey Memorial Collection.
123. Jacques Garvey to Keys, May 3, 1944, Box 2, Folder 7, Garvey Memorial Collection. On the women’s page of the Negro World, see Taylor, Veiled Garvey, 64–90.
124. Jacques Garvey to Keys, May 3, 1944, Box 2, Folder 7, Garvey Memorial Collection; Jacques Garvey to Keys, June 30, 1944, Box 2, Folder 7, Garvey Memorial Collection.
125. Bilbo certainly received Jacques Garvey’s letters. See two letters to Bilbo of the same date: Jacques Garvey to Bilbo, March 26, 1944, Box 1090, Folder 4, Bilbo Papers. On Bilbo’s failing health, see Hedlin, “Earnest Cox and Colonization,” 158.
126. Jacques Garvey to Keys, June 30, 1944, Box 2, Folder 7, Garvey Memorial Collection.
127. Jacques Garvey to Keys, June 30, 1944, Box 2, Folder 7, Garvey Memorial Collection.
128. Taylor, Veiled Garvey, 159–60. Jacques Garvey advised Keys to print copies of the UNIA aims and objectives instead of the bill. See Jacques Garvey to Keys, August 2, 1944, Box 2, Folder 7, Garvey Memorial Collection.
129. Geiss, The Pan-African Movement. There has been much scholarly debate concerning Nkrumah’s role as well as Du Bois’s role in organizing the conference. For these varying perspectives, see James R. Hooker, Black Revolutionary: George Padmore’s Path from Communism to Pan-Africanism (New York: Praeger, 1970); David Levering Lewis, W. E. B. Du Bois: The Fight for Equality and the American Century, 1919–1963 (New York: Henry Holt, 1995); Kwame Nkrumah, Ghana: The Autobiography of Kwame Nkrumah (New York: International Publishers, 1957); Marika Sherwood, Kwame Nkrumah: The Years Abroad, 1935–1947 (Legon: Freedom Publications, 1996).
130. Taylor, Veiled Garvey, 165–70.
131. Amy Ashwood Garvey, speech given to the Manchester Pan-African Congress, October 19, 1945, in History of the Pan-African Congress: Colonial and Coloured Unity, a Programme of Action, ed. George Padmore (Manchester: Pan-African Federation, 1945).
132. Amy Jacques Garvey to George Padmore, September 22, 1945, Box 2, File 11, Marcus Garvey Memorial Collection, Fisk University, Nashville, Tenn.
133. Hillina Seife, “A New Generation of Ethiopianists: The Universal Ethiopian Students Association and The African: Journal of African Affairs, 1937–1948,” African and Black Diaspora: An International Journal (2010) 3, no. 2: 197–209.
134. John Munro, “Ethiopia Stretches Forth Across the Atlantic: African American Anticolonialism During the Interwar Period,” Left History 13, no. 2 (Fall–Winter 2008): 37–68.
135. See Seife, “A New Generation of Ethiopianists.”
136. Clare Courbould, Becoming African Americans: Black Public Life in Harlem, 1919–1939 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2009), 207.
137. Clare Courbould, Becoming African Americans, 207; George S. Schuyler, Ethiopian Stories (Boston: Northeastern University Press, 1994), 20.
138. See Seife, “A New Generation of Ethiopianists.”
139. Stanley Davis, Letter to the Editor, African, September 1946.
140. Seife, “A New Generation of Ethiopianists,” 198, 200. See “The African Magazine Banned in Kongo,” African, September 1946.
141. Erez Manela, A Wilsonian Moment: Self-Determination and the International Origins of Anticolonial Nationalism (New York: Oxford University Press, 2007).
142. Amy Jacques Garvey, “Africans at Home and Abroad,” African, October 1945.
143. Jacques Garvey, “The Coming Era,” African, August 1944.
144. Gordon was released from prison several months early after making several requests because of failing health. Gordon to Cox, August 11, 1945, Box 6, Folder 3.
145. Jacques Garvey, “Be Prepared,” African, May 1946.
146. Jacques Garvey, “Adversity + Courage = Advantages,” African, November–December 1944.
147. Garvey, “Adversity + Courage = Advantages.”
148. Jacques Garvey, “The Language of Freedom,” African, May–June 1945.
149. Jacques Garvey, “Where Are My Children,” African, June 1946.
150. Amy Jacques Garvey, “Is Yours a Home,” African, April 1945.
151. “Mrs. Victoria Schaack Points to Liberia as Land of Opportunity,” Afro-American, April 27, 1946.
152. Hill, Marcus Garvey and the Universal Negro Improvement Association Papers, II:431.
153. “Mrs. Victoria Schaack Points to Liberia as Land of Opportunity.”
154. “Reclaim the Home and African Family,” African, August 1946.
155. Victoria J. Schaack, “Home and Family Life,” African, September 1946.
156. Joy James, “Radicalizing Feminism,” in The Black Feminist Reader, ed. Joy James and T. Denean Sharpley-Whiting (Malden, Mass.: Blackwell, 2000), 246.
Chapter 6
1. Mittie Maude Lena Gordon to Earnest Sevier Cox, August 13, 1956, Box 11, Folder 3, Earnest Sevier Cox Papers, 1821–1973, Rare Book, Manuscript, and Special Collections Library, Duke University, Durham, N.C.
2. The literature on the Civil Rights–Black Power era is extensive. Key works include Clayborne Carson, In
Struggle: SNCC and the Black Awakening of the 1960s (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1981); Aldon D. Morris, The Origins of the Civil Rights Movement: Black Communities Organizing for Change (New York: Free Press, 1984); Barbara Ransby, Ella Baker and the Black Freedom Movement: A Radical Democratic Vision (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2003); William L. Van Deburg, New Day in Babylon: The Black Power Movement and the American Culture (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992); Lance Hill, Deacons of Defense: Armed Resistance and the Civil Rights Movement (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2004); Nikhil Pal Singh, Black Is a Country: Race and the Unfinished Struggle for Democracy (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2005); Jeffrey O. G. Ogbar, Black Power: Radical Politics and African American Identity (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2004); Peniel Joseph, Waiting ’Til the Midnight Hour: A Narrative History of Black Power (New York: Henry Holt, 2006).
3. Peniel Joseph, “The Black Power Movement: A State of the Field,” Journal of American History 96, no. 3 (December 2009): 752; Ransby, Ella Baker and the Black Freedom Movement; Tim Tyson, Radio Free Dixie: Robert F. Williams and the Roots of Black Power (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1999); Pero Dagbovie, “ ‘God Has Spared Me to Tell My Story’: Mabel Robinson Williams and the Civil Rights–Black Power Movement,” Black Scholar 43: 1–2, 69–88.
4. Clifton E. Marsh, The Lost-Found Nation of Islam in America (Lanham, Md.: Scarecrow Press, 2000), 11. Also see Edward E. Curtis, Black Muslim Religion in the Nation of Islam, 1960–1975 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2006); Dan Berger, “The Malcolm X Doctrine, The Republic of New Afrika and National Liberation on U.S. Soil,” in New World Coming: The Sixties and the Shaping of Global Consciousness, ed. Karen Dubinsky (Toronto: Between the Lines, 2009).
5. Scott Brown, Fighting for US: Maulana Karenga, the US Organization, and Black Cultural Nationalism (New York: New York University Press, 2003); Joshua Bloom and Waldo E. Martin, Black Against Empire: The History and Politics of the Black Panther Party (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2013).
6. Joseph, Waiting ’Til the Midnight Hour, 3.
7. Earnest Sevier Cox to Benjamin Jones, October 9, 1950, Box 8, Folder 1, Cox Papers.
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