28. J. M. Wallace-Hadrill, The Barbarian West, 400–1000 revised ed. (Oxford: Blackwell, 1996). For the prevailing languages of the fifth century, see Millar, Greek Roman Empire, 84–129.
29. James Carroll, Constantine’s Sword (New York: Houghton Mifflin, 2001); Elaine Pagels, Beyond Belief (New York: Random House, 2003); Karen King, What Is Gnosticism? (Cambridge, MA: Belknap of Harvard Univ. Press, 2003); Bart D. Ehrman, Lost Christianities (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 2003); David L. Dungan, Constantine’s Bible (Minneapolis: Fortress, 2007). A similar story of fall and decline is told by Rita Nakashima Brock and Rebecca Ann Parker, Saving Paradise (Boston: Beacon, 2008), although they place the transition much later.
30. Richard E. Rubenstein, When Jesus Became God (New York: Harcourt Brace, 1999).
31. For other rituals of inclusion, see Michael Philip Penn, Kissing Christians (Philadelphia: Univ. of Pennsylvania Press, 2005).
32. Ramsay MacMullen, Voting About God in Early Church Councils (New Haven: Yale Univ. Press, 2006). Norman P. Tanner, ed., Decrees of the Ecumenical Councils (Washington, DC: Georgetown Univ. Press, 1990).
33. Michael Gaddis, There Is No Crime for Those Who Have Christ (Berkeley: Univ. of California Press, 2005).
34. MacMullen, Voting About God.
35. Millar, Greek Roman Empire.
36. Gaddis, No Crime for Those Who Have Christ.
37. Guy G. Stroumsa, “Religious Dynamics Between Christians and Jews in Late Antiquity (312–640),” in Casiday and Norris, Cambridge History of Christianity, 151–72.
38. H. A. Drake, “The Church, Society and Political Power,” in Casiday and Norris, Cambridge History of Christianity, 403–28.
39. Gaddis, No Crime for Those Who Have Christ. For the world of the monks, see Susan Ashbrook Harvey, Asceticism and Society in Crisis (Berkeley: Univ. of California Press, 1990); Daniel Caner, Wandering, Begging Monks (Berkeley: Univ. of California Press, 2002); Jennifer L. Hevelone-Harper, Disciples of the Desert (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Univ. Press, 2005).
40. Gustaf Aulén, Christus Victor (New York: Macmillan, 1972); Sandra Visser and Thomas Williams, Anselm (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 2009).
41. Alan Cameron, Circus Factions (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 1976).
42. Evagrius, “History of the Church,” in Walford, History of the Church, 386, altered.
43. Thomas Sizgorich, Violence and Belief in Late Antiquity (Philadelphia: Univ. of Pennsylvania Press, 2008); Patrick Cockburn, Muqtada Al-Sadr (New York: Scribner, 2008).
CHAPTER TWO: THE WAR OF TWO NATURES
1. Frend, Rise of Christianity. For a still very readable discussion of the theological issues and debates, see Edward Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, 5:197–284; Anthony Maas, “Christology,” Catholic Encyclopedia (1912), vol. 14, at http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/14597a.htm; J. Levison and P. Pope-Levison, “Christology,” in William A. Dyrness and Veli-Matti Kärkkäinen, eds., Global Dictionary of Theology (Downers Grove, IL: IVP Academic, 2008), 167–86; Giusto Traina, 428 AD (Princeton: Princeton Univ. Press, 2009).
2. Raymond E. Brown, An Introduction to New Testament Christology (New York: Paulist, 1994); Gregory Riley, One Jesus, Many Christs (San Francisco: HarperSanFrancisco, 1997); Richard Bauckham, God Crucified (Carlisle, UK: Paternoster, 1998); Jaroslav Pelikan, The Emergence of the Catholic Tradition (100–600), vol. 1, The Christian Tradition (Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press, 1971).
3. Ignatius is quoted from his letter to the Ephesians 7, in Bart Ehrman, ed., Apostolic Fathers, 2 vols. (Boston: Harvard Univ. Press, 2003), vol. 1, 227; Henry Bettenson, ed. The Early Christian Fathers (Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press, 1969); J. N. D. Kelly, Early Christian Doctrines, 5th rev. ed. (New York: Harper & Row, 1978); James H. Charlesworth and James R. Mueller, The New Testament Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha (Metuchen, NJ: Scarecrow, 1987); Helmut Koester, Ancient Christian Gospels (Philadelphia: Trinity Press International, 1990). For the complex interaction between “heretical” thought and what became orthodoxy, see Mark Edwards, Catholicity and Heresy in the Early Church (Farnham, UK: Ashgate, 2009).
4. For the Ebionites, see Eusebius of Caesarea, The Ecclesiastical History, 2 vols. ed. and trans. Kirsopp Lake, Loeb Classical Library (London: Heinemann, 1926–32), Book 3, 26–28; Antti Marjanen and Petri Luomanen, eds., A Companion to Second-Century Christian “Heretics” (Leiden: Brill, 2005); Matt Jackson-McCabe, ed., Jewish Christianity Reconsidered (Minneapolis: Fortress, 2007).
5. Ehrman, Lost Christianities; Bart D. Ehrman, The Orthodox Corruption of Scripture (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 1993).
6. The gospel of Peter is quoted from Wilhelm Schneemelcher, ed., New Testament Apocrypha rev. ed. (London: SCM, 1963), 1:184. For Cerinthus, see Eusebius, Ecclesiastical History, Book 3, 28. “Represented Jesus” is quoted from Irenaeus writing c.180: Alexander Roberts and James Donaldson, eds., The Apostolic Fathers, Justin Martyr, Irenaeus, in Ante-Nicene Fathers (New York: Scribner, 1926), 1:352; “This Christ passed through Mary” is quoted from Roberts and Donaldson, Apostolic Fathers, Justin Martyr, Irenaeus, in Ante-Nicene Fathers, 1:325. For the stress on Christ’s resurrection as the moment of “declaring,” see Rom. 1:3–4.
7. C. C. Martindale, “Epiphany,” Catholic Encyclopedia (1909), vol. 5, at http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/05504c.htm; Everett Ferguson, Baptism in the Early Church (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2009).
8. For Paul of Samosata, see Eusebius, Ecclesiastical History, Book 7, 27–30; Paul’s views are quoted from Frederick C. Conybeare, “Paul of Samosata,” Encyclopedia Britannica (New York: Encyclopedia Britannica, 1911), 20:958; Epiphanius, The Panarion of Epiphanius of Salamis, 2 vols., trans. Frank Williams (Leiden: Brill, 1987–94), 2:209–18; Virginia Burrus, “Begotten, Not Made” (Stanford: Stanford Univ. Press, 2000), 22–25.
9. See 2 John 1:7; Phil. 2:7. “Atheists and infidels” is adapted from Ignatius Trallians
10, in Ehrman, Apostolic Fathers, 1:264–65. Mani is quoted from Epiphanius, Panarion of Epiphanius, 2:227; Tertullian’s De Carne Christi is from Allan Menzies, ed., Latin Christianity: Its Founder, Tertullian, in Ante-Nicene Fathers (New York: Scribner, 1926), 3:911–51.
10. Epiphanius, Panarion of Epiphanius, 2:121–27; Young, “Monotheism and Christology,” in Mitchell and Young, Cambridge History of Christianity, 452–69.
11. Henry Bettenson, ed., The Later Christian Fathers (Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press, 1969); Trevor Hart, “Creeds, Councils and Doctrinal Development,” in Philip F. Esler, ed., The Early Christian World (New York: Routledge, 2000), 1:636–59.
12. “There never was” is from John Bowden, “Christology” in John Bowden, ed., Encyclopedia of Christianity (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 2005), 220; Rowan Williams, Arius, rev. ed. (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2002); Thomas C. Ferguson, The Past Is Prologue (Leiden: Brill, 2005); J. Rebecca Lyman, “Arius and Arians,” in Harvey and Hunter, Oxford Handbook of Early Christian Studies, 237–57.
13. J. N. D. Kelly, Early Christian Creeds, 3rd ed. (New York: Longman, 1981, originally published 1972). For the Council of Nicea, see Timothy D. Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius (Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press, 1981); Timothy D. Barnes, Athanasius and Constantius (Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press, 1993); John Behr, The Way to Nicaea (Crestwood, NY: St. Vladimir’s Seminary Press, 2001); Mark Edwards, “The First Council of Nicaea,” in Mitchell and Young, Cambridge History of Christianity, 552–67; Lewis Ayres, Nicaea and Its Legacy (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 2006).
14. Karl-Heinz Uthemann, “History of Christology to the Seventh Century,” in Casiday and Norris, Cambridge History of Christianity, 460–500.
15. Grillmeier, Apostolic Age to Chalcedon.
16. J. Stevenson, ed., A New Eusebius (London: S.P.C.K., 1957), 279–80. MacMullen, Voting About God, 26–27.
17. Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, 5:207.
18. Apollinarius is quoted from Frend, Rise of the Monophysite Movement, 116.
19. “The Word of God has not descended” is
from Stevenson, Creeds, Councils and Controversies, 96. “There is no distinction” is from Frend, Rise of the Monophysite Movement, 115.
20. Schaff is quoted from Philip Schaff, The Creeds of Christendom (Grand Rapids: Baker, 1993 printing), 2:64. Damasus is quoted from Theodoret, “Ecclesiastical History,” in Schaff and Wace, Fathers of the Christian Church, 3:139. For the First Council of Constantinople, see Henry R. Percival, “The Seven Ecumenical Councils of the Undivided Church,” in Schaff and Wace, Fathers of the Christian Church, 12:161–90. Rubenstein, When Jesus Became God, 211–31; Charles Freeman, A.D. 381 (London: Pimlico, 2008).
21. These anathemas are from Theodoret, “Ecclesiastical History,” in Schaff and Wace, Fathers of the Christian Church, 139–40.
22. Frend, Rise of Christianity, 629–42. Andrew Louth, “Later Theologians of the Greek East,” in Esler, Early Christian World, 1:580–600; Edward Rochie Hardy, ed., Christology of the Later Fathers (Philadelphia: Westminster, 1954).
23. Stevenson, Creeds, Councils and Controversies, 115; Frend, Rise of the Monophysite Movement; Rubenstein, When Jesus Became God, 204–8.
24. Susan Wessel, Cyril of Alexandria and the Nestorian Controversy (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 2004).
25. Lionel R. Wickham, ed., Cyril of Alexandria: Select Letters (Oxford: Clarendon, 1983); Norman Russell, Cyril of Alexandria (New York: Routledge, 2000); John A. McGuckin, St Cyril of Alexandria: The Christological Controversy (Crestwood, NY: St Vladimir’s Seminary Press, 2004); Wessel, Cyril of Alexandria. For a partisan pro-Cyril account, see B. T. A. Evetts, ed., History of the Patriarchs of the Coptic Church of Alexandria, (Paris: Firmin-Didot, 1948–59), 2:403–23.
26. The quotes are from Cyril’s Second Letter to Nestorius, in Price and Gaddis, Acts of the Council of Chalcedon, 1:175–77. John A. McGuckin, ed., St. Cyril of Alexandria: On the Unity of Christ (Crestwood, NY: St. Vladimir’s Seminary Press, 1995); Steven A. McKinion, Words, Imagery, and the Mystery of Christ (Leiden: Brill, 2000).
27. Cyril’s third letter is quoted from Stevenson, Creeds, Councils and Controversies, 284.
28. For the forgeries, see Frend, Rise of the Monophysite Movement, 121.
29. Brent, Ignatius of Antioch; Susan Ashbrook Harvey, “Syria and Mesopotamia,” in Mitchell and Young, Cambridge History of Christianity, 331–50.
30. Frances M. Young, From Nicaea to Chalcedon (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1983); Robert C. Hill, Reading the Old Testament in Antioch (Leiden: Brill, 2005); Raffaella Cribiore, The School of Libanius in Late Antique Antioch (Princeton: Princeton Univ. Press, 2007); Isabella Sandwell, Religious Identity in Late Antiquity (New York: Cambridge Univ. Press, 2007).
31. Frederick G. McLeod, The Image of God in the Antiochene Tradition (Washington, DC: Catholic Univ. of America Press, 1999); Robert C. Hill, Diodore of Tarsus: Commentary on Psalms 1–51 (Leiden: Brill, 2005); Clayton, Christology of Theodoret, 53–74.
32. Theresa Urbainczyk, Theodoret of Cyrrhus (Ann Arbor: Univ. of Michigan Press, 2002); Frederick G. McLeod, The Roles of Christ’s Humanity in Salvation (Washington, DC: Catholic Univ. of America Press, 2005); István Pásztori-Kupán, Theodoret of Cyrus (New York: Routledge, 2006).
33. Frend, Rise of Christianity.
34. Richard Lim, Public Disputation, Power and Social Order in Late Antiquity (Berkeley: Univ. of California Press, 1995), 149.
35. MacMullen, Voting About God, 28–29. Cyril’s Third Letter is found in Percival, “Seven Ecumenical Councils,” in Schaff and Wace, Fathers of the Christian Church, 9:201–5: this passage is from 204.
36. Edward Pace, “Hypostatic Union,” Catholic Encyclopedia (1910), vol. 7, at http:// www.newadvent.org/cathen/07610b.htm. Stevenson, Creeds, Councils and Controversies, 36.
37. Green, Soteriology of Leo the Great; Susan Wessel, Leo the Great and the Spiritual Rebuilding of a Universal Rome (Leiden: Brill, 2008), 209–57.
38. Cameron, Circus Factions; MacMullen, Voting About God, 13.
39. Patrick T. R. Gray, The Defense of Chalcedon in the East (451–553) (Leiden: Brill, 1979), 18; Cornelia B. Horn, Asceticism and Christological Controversy in Fifth-Century Palestine (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 2006); Hagith Sivan, Palestine in Late Antiquity (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 2008).
CHAPTER THREE: FOUR HORSEMEN: THE CHURCH’S PATRIARCHS
1. Brown, Rise of Western Christendom, 93–122; Chadwick, Church in Ancient Society; Claudia Rapp, Holy Bishops in Late Antiquity (Berkeley: Univ. of California Press, 2005).
2. For Athanasius and Alexander, see Khaled Anatolios, Athanasius (New York: Routledge, 2004), 3. David Brakke, “Athanasius,” in Esler, Early Christian World, 2:1102–27; Davis, Early Coptic Papacy. Evetts, Patriarchs of the Coptic Church of Alexandria, 2:425–43.
3. Leo the Great, “Letters and Sermons,” in Schaff and Wace, Fathers of the Christian Church, 21:5–15.
4. “Peter has spoken thus through Leo” is from Price and Gaddis, Acts of the Council of Chalcedon, 2:24.
5. “And which is now professed” is from Henry Bettenson, ed., Documents of the Christian Church (London: Oxford Univ. Press, 1943), 31.
6. For the state of the African episcopate, see Erika Hermanowicz, Possidius of Calama (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 2008); for the patriarch of the East, see Jenkins, Lost History of Christianity.
7. Raymond Van Dam, The Roman Revolution of Constantine (New York: Cambridge Univ. Press, 2007). For the First Council of Constantinople, see Percival, “Seven Ecumenical Councils,” in Schaff and Wace, Fathers of the Christian Church, 12:161–90.
8. J. N. D. Kelly, Golden Mouth (Ithaca, NY: Cornell Univ. Press, 1995); Helmut Koester, ed., Ephesos, Metropolis of Asia (Valley Forge, PA: Trinity Press International, 1995). For John Chrysostom and Ephesus, see Sozomen, “Ecclesiastical History,” in Schaff and Wace, Fathers of the Christian Church, 2:403.
9. E. A. J. Honigmann, “Juvenal of Jerusalem,” in Dumbarton Oaks Papers, no. 5 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press, 1950), 209–79.
10. “Never abided by one opinion” is from Evagrius, “History of the Church,” in Walford, History of the Church, 356.
11. For the development of the papacy, see Jeffrey Richards, The Popes and the Papacy in the Early Middle Ages (New York: Routledge, 1979); Eamon Duffy, Saints and Sinners (New Haven: Yale Univ. Press, 1997); Philippe Levillain, ed., The Papacy: An Encyclopedia (New York: Routledge, 2002); Wessel, Leo the Great; Roger Collins, Keepers of the Keys of Heaven (New York: Basic Books, 2009).
12. John R. Curran, Pagan City and Christian Capital (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 1999); Dennis Trout, “Saints, Identity and the City,” in Virginia Burrus, ed., Late Ancient Christianity (Minneapolis: Fortress, 2005), 164–87; for the emergence of papal and pilgrim Rome, see Éamonn Ó Carragáin and Carol L. Neuman de Vegvar, eds., Roma Felix (Burlington, VT: Ashgate, 2007).
13. “We bear the burdens” is from Klaus Schatz, Papal Primacy (Collegeville, MN: Liturgical Press, 1996), 30.
14. Leo the Great, “Letters and Sermons,” in Schaff and Wace, Fathers of the Christian Church, 7. Wessel, Leo the Great, 285–321.
15. Smith, Europe after Rome; Stephen Mitchell, A History of the Later Roman Empire, A.D. 284–641 (Oxford: Blackwell, 2007); John F. Drinkwater, The Alamanni and Rome 213–496 (Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press, 2007); Michael Kulikowski, Rome’s Gothic Wars from the Third Century to Alaric (New York: Cambridge Univ. Press, 2007); Traina, 428 AD.
16. Leo the Great, “Letters and Sermons” in Schaff and Wace, Fathers of the Christian Church: for “dictatorial” attitudes, 6; for Gaul, 8–12; for Leo and Illyricum, 6. Johann Peter Kirsch, “Pope St. Leo I (the Great),” Catholic Encyclopedia (1910), vol. 9, at http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/09154b.htm. Wessel, Leo the Great, 53–136; Paul-André Jacob, ed., La Vie d’Hilaire d’Arles (Paris: Editions du Cerf, 1995).
17. Alan Cameron and Jacqueline Long, Barbarians and Politics at the Court of Arcadius (Berkeley: Univ. of California Press, 1993); Bryan Ward-Perkins, The Fall of Rome and the End of Civ
ilization (Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press 2005); Peter Heather, The Fall of the Roman Empire (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 2006). For Rome’s shrinking population, see Barry Cunliffe, Europe Between the Oceans (New Haven: Yale Univ. Press, 2008), 426.
18. “We have no very clear information” is from Leo the Great, “Letters and Sermons,” in Schaff and Wace, Fathers of the Christian Church, 83; Millar, A Greek Roman Empire, 1–38, 84–129.
19. John Drinkwater and Hugh Elton, eds., Fifth-Century Gaul (New York: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1992). For the growing confidence of Western Christianity in this age, see R. A. Markus, The End of Ancient Christianity (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1991); Ivor Davidson, “Later Theologians of the West,” in Esler, Early Christian World, 1:602–34.
20. Davis, Early Coptic Papacy; Roger S. Bagnall, Egypt in Late Antiquity (Princeton: Princeton Univ. Press, 1993). See the essays in Bagnall, Egypt in the Byzantine World, 300–700, especially Zsolt Kiss, “Alexandria in the Fourth to Seventh Centuries,” 187–206.
21. Evetts, Patriarchs of the Coptic Church of Alexandria, 1. Walther Bauer, Orthodoxy and Heresy in Earliest Christianity (London: SCM, 1972); Pearson and Goehring, Roots of Egyptian Christianity; Birger A. Pearson, Gnosticism and Roman and Coptic Egypt (New York: T & T Clark, 2004); Birger A. Pearson, “Egypt,” in Mitchell and Young, Cambridge History of Christianity, 351–65.
22. Colin H. Roberts, Manuscript, Society, and Belief in Early Christian Egypt (London: published for the British Academy by Oxford Univ. Press, 1979). C. Wilfred Griggs, Early Egyptian Christianity (Leiden: Brill, 1990).
23. Christopher Haas, Alexandria in Late Antiquity (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Univ. Press, 1997). Goehring and Timbie, World of Early Egyptian Christianity.
24. Socrates, “Ecclesiastical History,” in Schaff and Wace, Fathers of the Christian Church, 2:126–27; Sozomen, “Ecclesiastical History,” in Schaff and Wace, Fathers of the Christian Church, 2:385–86. Norman Russell, Theophilus of Alexandria (New York: Routledge, 2007); David Frankfurter “Christianity and Paganism I: Egypt,” in Casiday and Norris, Cambridge History of Christianity, 173–88.
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