25. “The Alexandrian public” is from Socrates, “Ecclesiastical History,” in Schaff and Wace, Fathers of the Christian Church, 159–60. In fact, Alexandria was notorious for faction and confrontational dissidence long before the triumph of Christianity: see Andrew Harker, Loyalty and Dissidence in Roman Egypt (New York: Cambridge Univ. Press, 2008). For the lynching, see Stevenson, Creeds, Councils and Controversies, 60–61.
26. Frend, Rise of the Monophysite Movement, 72; Rebecca Krawiec, Shenoute and the Women of the White Monastery (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 2002); Caroline T. Schroeder, Monastic Bodies (Philadelphia: Univ. of Pennsylvania Press, 2007). For Egyptian trends, see Alois Grillmeier, Christ in Christian Tradition, vol. 2, From the Council of Chalcedon (451) to Gregory the Great (590–604), part 4, The Church of Alexandria with Nubia and Ethiopia after 451 (Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox, 1996), 167–228; David Frankfurter, ed., Pilgrimage and Holy Space in Late Antique Egypt (Leiden: Brill, 1998).
27. Patrick Healy, “Parabolani,” Catholic Encyclopedia (1911), vol. 11, at http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/11467a.htm. Stevenson, Creeds, Councils and Controversies, 158–59, 191–92.
28. Socrates, “Ecclesiastical History,” in Schaff and Wace, Fathers of the Christian Church, 159–61. Evetts, Patriarchs of the Coptic Church of Alexandria, 2:430–43.
29. This account is drawn from Socrates, “Ecclesiastical History,” in Schaff and Wace, Fathers of the Christian Church, 159–61.
30. All quotes are from Socrates, “Ecclesiastical History,” in Schaff and Wace, Fathers of the Christian Church, 159–60.
31. Socrates, “Ecclesiastical History,” in Schaff and Wace, Fathers of the Christian Church, 160.
32. All quotes are from Socrates, “Ecclesiastical History,” in Schaff and Wace, Fathers of the Christian Church, 160; R. H. Charles, ed., The Chronicle of John, Bishop of Nikiu (London: Williams & Norgate, 1916), 100–102; Michael A. B. Deakin, Hypatia of Alexandria (Amherst, NY: Prometheus, 2007).
33. Harold G. Marcus, A History of Ethiopia, rev. ed., (Berkeley: Univ. of California Press, 2002).
34. Frend, Rise of Christianity.
35. Vasiliki Limberis, Divine Heiress (New York: Routledge, 1994).
36. Brian Croke, “Justinian’s Constantinople” in Michael Maas, ed., The Cambridge Companion to the Age of Justinian (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 2005), 60–86.
37. Socrates, “Ecclesiastical History,” in Schaff and Wace, Fathers of the Christian Church, 138–39; Sozomen, “Ecclesiastical History,” in Schaff and Wace, Fathers of the Christian Church, 399–401; Kelly, Golden Mouth; Chadwick, Church in Ancient Society, 479–98; Jaclyn L. Maxwell, Christianization and Communication in Late Antiquity (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 2006).
38. Socrates, “Ecclesiastical History,” in Schaff and Wace, Fathers of the Christian Church, 138–52; Sozomen, “Ecclesiastical History,” in Schaff and Wace, Fathers of the Christian Church, 402–18; Theodoret, “Ecclesiastical History,” in Schaff and Wace, Fathers of the Christian Church, 151–56; J. N. D. Kelly, Jerome: His Life, Writings, and Controversies (New York: Harper & Row, 1975); Limberis, Divine Heiress; Russell, Theophilus of Alexandria.
39. J. W. H. G. Liebeschuetz, Barbarians and Bishops (Oxford: Clarendon, 1990).
CHAPTER FOUR: QUEENS, GENERALS, AND EMPERORS
1. Averil Cameron. The Mediteranean World in Late Antiquity, A.D. 395–600 (New York: Routledge, 1993); Chadwick, Church in Ancient Society; Webster and Brown, Transformation of the Roman World A.D. 400–900.
2. Liebeschuetz, Barbarians and Bishops; Averil Cameron, The Later Roman Empire (Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press, 1993).
3. Timothy D. Barnes, The New Empire of Diocletian and Constantine (Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press, 1982); Matthew P. Canepa, The Two Eyes of the Earth (Berkeley: Univ. of California Press, 2009).
4. Kate Cooper and Julia Hillner, eds., Religion, Dynasty and Patronage in Early Christian Rome, 300–900 (New York: Cambridge Univ. Press, 2007); Wessel, Leo the Great, 10–16.
5. Cameron and Long, Barbarians and Politics; Penny MacGeorge, Late Roman Warlords (Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press, 2003).
6. Millar, Greek Roman Empire, 39–83; Drinkwater and Elton, Fifth-Century Gaul.
7. Christopher Kelly, Ruling the Later Roman Empire (Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press, 2004); Adrian Goldsworthy, The Fall of the West (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 2009). Shaun Tougher, The Eunuch in Byzantine History and Society (New York: Routledge, 2008).
8. Quoted from C. D. Gordon, ed., The Age of Attila (Ann Arbor: Univ. of Michigan Press, 1960), 27–28.
9. Millar, Greek Roman Empire, 130–67; Derek Krueger, “Christian Piety and Practice in the Sixth Century,” in Maas, Cambridge Companion to the Age of Justinian, 291–315.
10. Jaroslav Pelikan, The Excellent Empire (San Francisco: Harper & Row, 1987); Ward-Perkins, Fall of Rome and the End of Civilization; Heather, Fall of the Roman Empire; Goldsworthy, Fall of the West.
11. “The exaction of the taxes” is quoted from J. B. Bury, A History of the Later Roman Empire from Arcadius to Irene (London: Macmillan, 1889), 219. Salvian is quoted from his On the Government of God, ed., by Eva M. Sanford (New York: Columbia Univ. Press, 1930), 109. Goldsworthy, Fall of the West.
12. Raymond Van Dam, “Bishops and Society,” in Casiday and Norris, Cambridge History of Christianity, 343–66; Rapp, Holy Bishops in Late Antiquity; Peter Brown, Authority and the Sacred (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1997).
13. Susan R. Holman, The Hungry Are Dying (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 2001); Peter Brown, Poverty and Leadership in the Later Roman Empire (Hanover, NH: Univ. Press of New England, 2002); Andrew T. Crislip, From Monastery to Hospital (Ann Arbor: Univ. of Michigan Press, 2005); Wessel, Leo the Great, 179–207.
14. The charges against Ibas are listed in Price and Gaddis, Acts of the Council of Chalcedon, 2:285.
15. “Spirit of ambitious rivalry” is from Socrates, “Ecclesiastical History,” in Schaff and Wace, Fathers of the Christian Church, 169. For “to prevent the disturbances,” see Socrates, “Ecclesiastical History,” in Schaff and Wace, Fathers of the Christian Church, 175.
16. James E. Goehring, Ascetics, Society, and the Desert (Harrisburg, PA: Trinity Press International, 1999); Columba Stewart, “Monasticism,” in Esler, Early Christian World, 1:344–68; Philip Rousseau, “Monasticism,” in Cameron, Ward-Perkins, and Whitby, Cambridge Ancient History, 14:745–80; David Brakke, Demons and the Making of the Monk (Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press, 2006).
17. Claudia Rapp, “Saints and Holy Men,” in Casiday and Norris, Cambridge History of Christianity, 548–66; Evagrius, “History of the Church,” in Walford, History of the Church, 272–75.
18. For “tombless corpses,” see Evagrius, “History of the Church,” in Walford, History of the Church, 284–87. Peter Brown, Body and Society (New York: Columbia Univ. Press, 1988); Peter Brown, Society and the Holy in Late Antiquity (Berkeley: Univ. of California Press, 1989); Susanna Elm, Virgins of God (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 1994); Teresa M. Shaw, The Burden of the Flesh (Minneapolis: Fortress, 1998); Dale B. Martin and Patricia Cox Miller eds., The Cultural Turn in Late Ancient Studies (Durham, NC: Duke Univ. Press, 2005). David G. Hunter, “Sexuality, Marriage and the Family,” in Casiday and Norris, Cambridge History of Christianity, 585–600; also in the same volume, see Samuel Rubenson “Asceticism And Monasticism,” 637–68.
19. The account of Severus is from Witakowski, Pseudo-Dionysius of Tell-Mahre, 14–15; Pauline Allen and Robert Hayward, Severus of Antioch (New York: Routledge 2004).
20. Peter Brown, The World of Late Antiquity (London: Thames and Hudson, 1971).
21. Peter Brown, Power and Persuasion in Late Antiquity (Madison: Univ. of Wisconsin Press, 1992).
22. Kenneth Holum, Theodosian Empresses (Berkeley: Univ. of California Press, 1982).
23. Stewart Irvin Oost, Galla Placidia Augusta (Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press, 1968).
24. Socr
ates, “Ecclesiastical History,” in Schaff and Wace, Fathers of the Christian Church, 164.
25. Christopher Kelly, Attila the Hun (Oxford: Bodley Head, 2008).
26. Evagrius, “History of the Church,” in Walford, History of the Church, 304–5.
27. Sozomen, “Ecclesiastical History,” in Schaff and Wace, Fathers of the Christian Church, 419–21. Ada B. Teetgen, The Life and Times of the Empress Pulcheria, A.D. 339–A.D. 452 (London: Swan Sonnenschein, 1907).
28. “She first devoted her virginity” is from Sozomen, “Ecclesiastical History,” in Schaff and Wace, Fathers of the Christian Church, 419. See also Horn, Asceticism and Christological Controversy. For women’s piety in Christian antiquity, see Lynda L. Coon, Sacred Fictions (Philadelphia: Univ. of Pennsylvania Press, 1997); Krawiec, Shenoute and the Women of the White Monastery; Nicola Frances Denzey, The Bone Gatherers (Boston: Beacon, 2007).
29. Kate Cooper, “Empress and Theotokos,” in Swanson, Church and Mary, 39–51; Limberis, Divine Heiress.
30. Sozomen, “Ecclesiastical History,” in Schaff and Wace, Fathers of the Christian Church, 419.
31. Sozomen, “Ecclesiastical History,” in Schaff and Wace, Fathers of the Christian Church, 419.
32. “He rendered his palace” is from Socrates, “Ecclesiastical History,” in Schaff and Wace, Fathers of the Christian Church, 164–65. The story of his celibacy is from Charles, Chronicle of John, Bishop of Nikiu, 105.
33. For Spain, see Michael Kulikowski, Late Roman Spain and Its Cities (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Univ. Press, 2004). For Christianity in Persia, see Elizabeth Key Fowden, The Barbarian Plain (Berkeley: Univ. of California Press, 1999); Joel Thomas Walker, The Legend of Mar Qardagh (Berkeley: Univ. of California Press, 2006).
34. Robert Louis Wilken, John Chrysostom and the Jews (Berkeley: Univ. of California Press, 1983); Charlotte Elisheva Fonrobert, “Jewish Christians, Judaizers, and Christian anti-Judaism,” in Burrus, Late Ancient Christianity, 234–54. For the Callinicum case, see Stevenson, Creeds, Councils and Controversies, 137–38, 158. For a critique of the new intolerance, see Paula Frederiksen, Augustine and the Jews (New York: Doubleday, 2008).
35. Compare Scott Bradbury, Severus of Minorca (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 1996).
36. For anti-Jewish laws, see Jacob Rader Marcus, ed., The Jew in the Medieval World (Cincinnati, OH: Hebrew Union College Press, 1999), 5–6. Millar, Greek Roman Empire, 84–129. For the mock crucifixion, see Socrates, “Ecclesiastical History,” 161; Elliott Horowitz, Reckless Rites (Princeton: Princeton Univ. Press, 2006), 215–17; Charles, Chronicle of John, Bishop of Nikiu, 102–3. For the Antioch riot, see Witakowski, Pseudo-Dionysius of Tell-Mahre, 2–3; Walter de Lange, “Jews in the Age of Justinian,” in Maas, Cambridge Companion to the Age of Justinian, 510–34.
37. Evagrius, “History of the Church,” in Walford, History of the Church, 282–83; M. D. Usher, Homeric Stitchings (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 1998).
38. Stuart George Hall, “Ecclesiology Forged in the Wake of Persecution,” in Mitchell and Young, Cambridge History of Christianity, 470–84.
39. Stephen Williams and Gerard Friell, Theodosius (New Haven: Yale Univ. Press, 1994); Neil B. McLynn, Ambrose of Milan (Berkeley: Univ. of California Press, 1994); Bill Leadbetter, “From Constantine to Theodosius,” in Esler, Early Christian World, 1:258–92.
40. Freeman, A.D. 381; R. P. C. Hanson, The Search for the Christian Doctrine of God (Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1988); Ferguson, Past Is Prologue. For earlier anti-Manichaean laws, see Stevenson, Creeds, Councils and Controversies, 95. For Theodosius and the Apollinarians, see Stevenson, Creeds, Councils and Controversies, 95–96.
41. Rubenstein, When Jesus Became God, 211–31; Freeman, A.D. 381; Chadwick, Church in Ancient Society, 415–32.
42. Virginia Burrus, The Making of a Heretic (Berkeley: Univ. of California Press, 1995); Stevenson, Creeds, Councils and Controversies, 151–55. For the Priscillianists in the fifth century, see Leo the Great, “Letters and Sermons,” in Schaff and Wace, Fathers of the Christian Church, 12:20–26.
43. For Ambrose, see Theodoret, “Ecclesiastical History,” in Schaff and Wace, Fathers of the Christian Church, 3:143; Stevenson, Creeds, Councils and Controversies, 140–42; McLynn, Ambrose of Milan. For the destruction of temples, see Stevenson, Creeds, Councils and Controversies, 261; Sozomen, “Ecclesiastical History,” in Schaff and Wace, Fathers of the Christian Church, 393–94; John Moorhead, Ambrose (New York: Longman, 1999); Freeman, A.D. 381.
44. J. Rebecca Lyman, “Heresiology,” in Casiday and Norris, Cambridge History of Christianity, 296–314; W. H. C. Frend, The Donatist Church (Oxford: Clarendon, 1985).
45. Socrates, “Ecclesiastical History,” in Schaff and Wace, Fathers of the Christian Church, 158.
46. Freeman, A.D. 381.
47. W. H. C. Frend, “Martyrdom and Political Oppression.” in Esler, Early Christian World, 2:815–39; Elizabeth A. Castelli, Martyrdom and Memory (New York: Columbia Univ. Press, 2004); Virginia Burrus, Saving Shame (Philadelphia: Univ. of Pennsylvania Press, 2007).
48. For John of Ephesus, see Witakowski, Pseudo-Dionysius of Tell-Mahre, 72. For the survival of paganism, see MacMullen, Christianizing the Roman Empire A.D. 100–400, 83; Ramsay MacMullen, Christianity and Paganism in the Fourth to Eighth Centuries (New Haven: Yale Univ. Press, 1999). Raymond Van Dam, Becoming Christian (Philadelphia: Univ. of Pennsylvania Press, 2003). For the slowness of the mass conversion process, see Ramsay MacMullen, The Second Church (Atlanta, GA: Society of Biblical Literature, 2009).
49. “The demon who is the originator” is from Price and Gaddis, Acts of the Council of Chalcedon, 2:150, my emphasis. Nestorius is paraphrased from Socrates, “Ecclesiastical History,” in Schaff and Wace, Fathers of the Christian Church, 169.
CHAPTER FIVE: NOT THE MOTHER OF GOD?
1. Ian Gillman and Hans-Joachim Klimkeit, Christians in Asia before 1500 (Ann Arbor: Univ. of Michigan Press, 1999); Jenkins, Lost History of Christianity.
2. Millar, Greek Roman Empire, 157–67; Traina, 428 AD.
3. E. B. Pusey, preface to E. B. Pusey and P. E. Pusey, eds., St. Cyril of Alexandria: Five Tomes Against Nestorius (Oxford: James Parker, 1881), xl–xliv; John Chapman, “Nestorius and Nestorianism,” Catholic Encyclopedia (1911), vol. 10, at http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/10755a.htm; Friedrich Loofs, Nestorius and his Place in the History of Christian Doctrine (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1914).
4. Socrates, “Ecclesiastical History,” in Schaff and Wace, Fathers of the Christian Church, 169–70; Traina, 428 AD, 7–9, 34–38.
5. For Proclus, see Socrates, “Ecclesiastical History,” in Schaff and Wace, Fathers of the Christian Church, 169; D. F. Wright, “From ‘God-Bearer’ to ‘Mother of God’ in the Later Fathers,” in Swanson, Church and Mary, 22–30. For Pulcheria, see Holum, Theodosian Empresses.
6. Young, Nicaea to Chalcedon; Wessel, Cyril of Alexandria.
7. Anastasius is quoted from Socrates, “Ecclesiastical History,” in Schaff and Wace, Fathers of the Christian Church, 170–71; “Anathema, if any call” is from Pusey and Pusey, preface to St. Cyril of Alexandria: Five Tomes (hereafter referred to as Pusey, “Preface”), li; for the withdrawal from communion, lvi; Evagrius, “History of the Church,” in Walford, History of the Church, 258.
8. “Akin to the putrid sore of Apollinarius” is from Pusey, “Preface,” xx, liv–lv.
9. “Has God a Mother?” is from Pusey, “Preface,” li.
10. Price, “Marian Piety and the Nestorian Controversy,” in Swanson, Church and Mary, 31–38; Jaroslav Pelikan, Mary through the Centuries (New Haven: Yale Univ. Press, 1996); Luigi Gambero, Mary and the Fathers of the Church (San Francisco: Ignatius, 1999); Stephen J. Shoemaker, The Ancient Traditions of the Virgin Mary’s Dormition and Assumption (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 2006); Rubin, Mother of God.
11. Frend, Rise of the Monophysite Movement, 141; Douglas Burton-Christie, The Word in the Desert (New York: Oxford Univ. Press,
1993).
12. Evagrius, “History of the Church,” in Walford, History of the Church, 257–58.
13. For the debate over Christotokos, see Pusey, “Preface,” xlix; lv-lvi for Eusebius; xxi.
14. Socrates, “Ecclesiastical History,” in Schaff and Wace, Fathers of the Christian Church, 170–71.
15. Proclus’s sermon is quoted in Maurice Wiles and Mark Santer, eds., Documents in Early Christian Thought (New York: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1975), 61–63. For Proclus’s other works, see Limberis, Divine Heiress; Nicholas Constas, Proclus of Constantinople and the Cult of the Virgin in Late Antiquity (Leiden: Brill, 2003).
16. Pusey, “Preface,” liii; for Dalmatius, lxxxviii.
17. The accounts of Nestorius’s maltreatment of his enemies are from Pusey, “Preface,” lii–liv. “Immediately he had us seized” is from Pusey, “Preface,” lii; “oppressed, famished” is from Pusey, “Preface,” liii.
18. Limberis, Divine Heiress, 59.
19. Nestorius, Bazaar of Heracleides, 96.
20. Cyril’s response to the sermons is from Pusey, “Preface,” lxiv; see also lviii. St. Cyril of Alexandria: Letters, trans., John I. McEnerney, 2 vols. (Washington, DC: Catholic Univ. of America Press, 1987). For the Alexandrian view of Cyril, see Evetts, Patriarchs of the Coptic Church of Alexandria, 2:432–34.
21. Percival, “Seven Ecumenical Councils,” in Schaff and Wace, Fathers of the Christian Church, 12:197–98.
22. Grillmeier, Apostolic Age to Chalcedon, 451–88.
23. Nestorius, Bazaar of Heracleides, 100, 349–51, paraphrased.
24. Pusey, “Preface,” lviii–lx.
25. Percival, “Seven Ecumenical Councils,” in Schaff and Wace, Fathers of the Christian Church, 12:197–98.
26. “Full of blasphemies” is quoted from Evetts, Patriarchs of the Coptic Church of Alexandria, 2:433–34; Nestorius’s letter to Cyril can be found at http://www.monachos.net/library/Nestorius_of_Constantinople,_Second_Epistle_to_Cyril_of_Alexandria
Jesus Wars Page 31