Stones of Contention

by Cleveland, Todd

  Selected Readings

  Kanfer, Stefan. The Last Empire: De Beers, Diamonds, and the World. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1993.

  Knight, John, and Heather Stevenson. “The Williamson Diamond Mine, De Beers, and the Colonial Office: A Case-Study of the Quest for Control.” Journal of Modern African Studies 24, no. 3 (1986): 423–45.

  Roberts, Janine. Glitter and Greed: The Secret World of the Diamond Empire. New York: Disinformation, 2003.

  Smalberger, John M. “I.D.B. and the Mining Compound System in the 1880s.” South African Journal of Economics 42, no. 4 (December 1974): 398–414.

  ———. “The Role of the Diamond-Mining Industry in the Development of the Pass-Law System in South Africa.” International Journal of African Historical Studies 9, no. 3 (1976): 419–34.

  Turrell, Rob. “Diamonds and Migrant Labor in South Africa, 1869–1910.” History Today 36, no. 5 (May 1986): 45–49.

  ———. “Kimberley: Labour and Compounds, 1871–1888.” In Industrialisation and Social Change in South Africa: African Class Formation, Culture, and Consciousness, 1870–1930, edited by Shula Marks and Richard Rathbone, 45–76. New York: Longman, 1982.

  ———. “Kimberley’s Model Compounds.” Journal of African History 25, no. 1 (1984): 59–75.

  Chapter 5—Creating “New Kimberleys” Elsewhere in Africa

  Chapter 5 traces the establishment of diamond mining operations throughout Africa as it came under European colonial rule. The chapter explores the diverse diamond mining environments that colonial states, extractive companies, and African headmen collaboratively created in a range of different settings across the continent.

  Discussion Questions

  1. Colonial states were vital partners in the expansion of the diamond industry in Africa. In what key ways did these governments assist mining companies during the colonial era? Why were some colonial regimes more zealous than others in providing assistance?

  2. Indigenous leaders often found themselves in precarious positions following the commencement of diamond mining operations in or near the areas over which they held sway. In what different ways did these traditional authorities engage with the emerging industry during the colonial period?

  3. African laborers had a wide range of experiences on colonial-era diamond mines. What were the most important structural and operational factors that shaped African workers’ experiences?

  4. Although colonial states often assisted with the procurement of African labor for diamond mining operations, the companies also recruited on their own, often in parallel. In what ways did these various mining enterprises attempt to attract African labor? Were they successful? Why or why not?

  5. The process of decolonization varied from place to place in Africa, influenced by a number of factors. How did the presence of a vibrant diamond industry in a colony shape this process?

  Selected Readings

  Clarence-Smith, W. G., and R. Moorsom. “Underdevelopment and Class Formation in Ovamboland, 1845–1915.” Journal of African History 16, no. 3 (1975): 365–81.

  Cooper, Allan D. “The Institutionalization of Contract Labour in Namibia.” Journal of Southern African Studies 25, no. 1 (1999): 121–38.

  Cronje, Gillian, and Suzanne Cronje. The Workers of Namibia. London: International Defence and Aid Fund for Southern Africa, 1979.

  Derksen, Richard. “Forminière in the Kasai, 1906–1939.” African Economic History, no. 12 (1983): 49–65.

  Gordon, Robert J. Mines, Masters and Migrants: Life in a Namibian Compound. Johannesburg: Ravan, 1977.

  Greenhalgh, Peter. West African Diamonds, 1919–1983: An Economic History. Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1985.

  Vellut, Jean-Luc. “Mining in the Belgian Congo.” In History of Central Africa, vol. 2, edited by David Birmingham and Phyllis M. Martin. London and New York: Longman, 1983.

  Chapter 6—The Experiences of African Workers on Colonial-Era Mines

  Chapter 6 continues the examination of colonial-era diamond mines but adjusts the angle of approach away from states, corporations, and indigenous authorities in order to consider the motivations, strategies, and experiences of African laborers. In response to a host of social and occupational challenges, laborers creatively shaped their plights by employing an array of strategies.

  Discussion Questions

  1. Colonial-era diamond companies typically offered reasonably attractive labor conditions for African employees vis-à-vis other industries, but often struggled to sufficiently staff their operations. Why were some Africans motivated to seek work on diamond mines and others to avoid the mines?

  2. Although working and living conditions on colonial-era mines were often extremely challenging, African laborers did not accept these circumstances passively. How did these mine workers, both individually and collectively, improve their lives, or at least alleviate some of the most severe challenges on the mines?

  3. In certain settings, African diamond mine workers organized labor unions or comparable entities. Were these effective? Why or why not?

  Selected Readings

  Carstens, Peter. In the Company of Diamonds: De Beers, Kleinzee, and the Control of a Town. Athens: Ohio University Press, 2001.

  Cleveland, Todd. “Rock Solid: African Laborers on the Diamond Mines of the Companhia de Diamantes de Angola (Diamang), 1917–1975.” PhD dissertation, University of Minnesota, 2008.

  Forminière. Forminière, 1906–1956. Brussels: Editions L. Cuypers, 1956.

  Gottschalk, Keith. “South African Labour Policy in Namibia 1915–1975.” South African Labour Bulletin 4, no. 1–2 (1978): 75–106.

  Kamil, Fred. The Diamond Underworld. London: Allen Lane, 1979.

  Thabane, Motlatsi. “Liphokojoe of Kao: A Study of a Diamond Digger Rebel Group in the Lesotho Highlands.” Journal of Southern African Studies 26, no. 1 (March 2000): 105.

  Uyind-a-Kanga, Mafulu. “Mobilisation de la main-d’oeuvre agricole: La dépendance de la zone rurale de Luiza des centres miniers du Kasai et du Haut-Katanga industriel (1928–1945).” African Economic History, no. 16 (1987): 39–60.

  Chapter 7—A Resource Curse: “Blood Diamonds,” State Oppression, and Violence

  Chapter 7 explores the ways that Africans have used diamond revenues to prop up oppressive governments, to destabilize others, and, in both of these scenarios, to precipitate widespread displacement and death. The most notorious development of this nature was the emergence of “blood diamonds,” or “conflict diamonds,” which helped fuel a range of civil conflicts on the continent; even though this era has arguably ended, diamond-fueled violence persists.

  Discussion Questions

  1. Were Africa’s diamonds severely tainted as a result of the “blood diamond” phenomenon? What made Africa more vulnerable to this particular type of violence? Is the continent uniquely susceptible? 2. Although “blood diamonds” became internationally notorious, attempts to label other violence-fueling commodities haven’t been nearly as effective. Why is there no public outrage over “blood oil” or other “bloody/conflict-fueling” natural resources?

  3. Although often (mis)understood as a broadly African phenomenon, “blood diamonds” emerged only in specific places on the continent. What factors led to the development of blood diamonds in Sierra Leone and Angola but not elsewhere?

  4. Despite the controversy that continues to swirl around it, the Kimberley Process has been at least somewhat successful in curbing the violence to which African diamonds contributed. Do you think this type of approach could be reemployed to curtail other violent practices in Africa, or elsewhere, such as poaching?

  5. Although the deployment of Executive Outcomes was highly controversial, the outfit was undeniably successful in halting, at least temporarily, the “blood diamond” violence in both Sierra Leone and Angola. Should the international community condone interventions by private security companies such as Executive Outcomes, to quell violence when more formal militaries are hesitant to
intervene? Why or why not?

  6. Although “blood diamonds” are understandably associated with Africa, a number of international entities and individuals played key roles in the generation of this deadly phenomenon. Should “blood diamonds” be understood as “African,” “international,” or both?

  7. Zimbabwe’s recent diamond discoveries and the government’s handling of the resultant output have divided the international community. What does the debate over Zimbabwe’s diamonds reveal about global politics, economics, priorities, and morality?

  Selected Readings

  Blood Diamond. Film. Warner Bros., 2006.

  Campbell, Greg. Blood Diamonds: Tracing the Deadly Path of the World’s Most Precious Stones. New York: Basic Books, 2004.

  Cilliers, Jakkie, and Christian Dietrich, eds. Angola’s War Economy: The Role of Oil and Diamonds. Pretoria: Institute for Security Studies, 2000.

  Diamonds of War: Africa’s Blood Diamonds. Film. National Geographic, 2003.

  Global Witness. NGO. www.globalwitness.org/library/rough-trade.

  Hirsch, John L. Sierra Leone: Diamonds and the Struggle for Democracy. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 2001.

  Kimberley Process. www.kimberleyprocess.com/.

  Le Billon, Philippe. “Fatal Transactions: Conflict Diamonds and the (Anti)Terrorist Consumer.” Antipode 38, no. 4 (2006): 778–801.

  Malaquias, Assis. “Diamonds Are a Guerrilla’s Best Friend: The Impact of Illicit Wealth on Insurgency Strategy.” Third World Quarterly 22, no. 3 (2001): 311–25.

  Partnership Africa Canada. NGO. www.pacweb.org/en/.

  Saunders, Richard. “Conflict Diamonds from Zimbabwe.” Briefing note, September 2009. www.bicc.de/fataltransactions/pdf/briefing_note_conflict_diamonds_from_Zimbabwe.pdf.

  Smillie, Ian. Blood on the Stone: Greed, Corruption and War in the Global Diamond Trade. London: Anthem, 2010.

  UN Peacekeeping Mission in Sierra Leone. www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/missions/past/unamsil/.

  Chapter 8—Mineral Assets: Diamonds and the Development of Democratic States

  Chapter 8 offers counterexamples to the violent scenarios that were considered in chapter 7 via an examination of the ways that the leaders of independent African governments, namely Botswana and Namibia, have used diamond profits to build democratic states characterized by pacific foreign and domestic policies. Although these nations’ diamond industries are not completely trouble-free, they offer hope for African countries still struggling to effectively manage their diamond resources.

  Discussion Questions

  1. Although “blood diamonds” contributed to the violent destabilization of certain African states, other diamond-producing nations remained conflict-free, including Namibia and Botswana. How would you explain the absence of “blood diamonds,” or “conflict diamonds,” in these settings?

  2. Although neither Namibia nor Botswana featured open, diamond-fueled rebellions, their industries are not entirely free of other forms of violence. Because of this, should the stones from these countries be considered “clean”? Why or why not?

  3. Although Botswana was devoid of “blood diamonds,” its leaders were acutely concerned about the damage that these “tainted stones” could inflict on its diamond industry. Was this anxiety reasonable, or did its government overreact in a counterproductive manner?

  4. In recent decades, NGOs have played an increasingly important role in monitoring the actions of companies and individuals involved in the extraction of African diamonds. How would you characterize the NGO concern over Botswana’s industry?

  5. Namibia features bountiful diamond deposits in areas that are somewhat exceptional in the African context. How have the locations of Namibia’s diamonds influenced its industry, past and present?

  6. Namibia’s diamond industry has long been influenced by the country’s unique political history. How have domestic, regional, and international political developments influenced Namibia’s diamond industry over time?

  7. Based on a shared history of racial oppression and struggles for eventual liberation, Robert Mugabe continues to enjoy a significant degree of regional political support. Considering this connection, should Namibia continue to support Mugabe’s right to retain exclusive access to Zimbabwe’s diamond deposits and use the profits as he sees fit?

  Selected Readings

  Good, Kenneth. “Interpreting the Exceptionality of Botswana.” Journal of Modern African Studies 30, no. 1 (1992): 69–95.

  Hillbom, Ellen. “Diamonds or Development? A Structural Assessment of Botswana’s Forty Years of Success.” Journal of Modern African Studies 46, no. 2 (2008): 191–214.

  Jefferis, Keith. “Botswana and Diamond-Dependent Development.” In Botswana: Politics and Society, edited by Wayne Edge and Mogopodi Lekorwe, 300–318. Pretoria: Van Schaik, 1998.

  Jefferis, Keith R., and T. F. Kelly. “Botswana: Poverty amid Plenty.” Oxford Development Studies 27, no. 2 (1999): 211–31.

  Koskoff, David E. The Diamond World. New York: Harper and Row, 1981.

  Samatar, Abdi. An African Miracle: State and Class Leadership and Colonial Legacy in Botswana Development. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann, 1999.

  Solway, Jacqueline. “Human Rights and NGO ‘Wrongs’: Conflict Diamonds, Culture Wars and the ‘Bushman Question.’” Africa 79, no. 3 (2009): 321–46.

  Taylor, Ian, and Gladys Mokhawa. “Not Forever: Botswana, Conflict Diamonds and the Bushmen.” African Affairs 102, no. 407 (2003): 261–83.

  Chapter 9—Africa’s Diamonds: A Rough Past with a Brighter Future

  Chapter 9 reflects on the material introduced over the preceding chapters in order to consider what the continent’s diamond future might look like. Although many Africans are still operating on the vulnerable fringes of the industry, there have been a number of promising developments that suggest that diamonds are well-poised to play a positive role in shaping Africa’s short- and long-term future.

  Discussion Questions

  1. Africa’s diamonds have always featured global dimensions. In this age of heightened globalization, are these even more pronounced now than in the past? Why or why not?

  2. Africa’s diamond deposits possess enormous development potential for the continent. How confident are you that the diamonds will help Africa develop in an equitable manner going forward?

  3. There is considerable controversy surrounding the Kimberley Process’s definition of “blood diamonds.” Should this body revise its definition to include scenarios that feature diamond-related violence even in the absence of open rebellion? What role should the United Nations play, if any?

  4. Ultimately, the industry is dependent on consumers for its survival. What can, or should, consumers do to help end diamond-related violence in Africa and elsewhere?

  5. Some Africans have enjoyed success within the contemporary diamond industry in Africa, including Tokyo Sexwale and Nompumelelo “Mpumi” Zikalala. Are these two individuals representative of a new, empowered African segment of the industry? Or are they exceptions that draw much-needed attention away from the ongoing suffering of countless Africans in both the formal and informal industries?

  6. Despite improvements in working conditions for African employees in the formal diamond industry, artisanal miners remain highly vulnerable, regular victims of violence, and often mired in poverty. How could the plight of artisanal miners be improved?

  7. The Kimberley Process has been lauded by some for helping end the flow of “conflict stones.” Is the era of “blood diamonds” really over? Why or why not?

  Selected Readings

  Comprehensive source of Charles Taylor’s trial. www.charlestaylortrial.org/.

  Diamond Development Initiative. www.ddiglobal.org/.

  Rapaport Group Diamond Information Services. www.diamonds.net.

  Human Rights Watch. NGO. www.hrg.org.

  [1] This popular media output also includes Lupe Fiasco’s “Conflict Diamonds” (2006), which is a remix of Kanye’s West’s “Diamonds
from Sierra Leone”; Nas’ “Shine on ’em,” also from 2006, which appeared on the Blood Diamond soundtrack; and the 2007 VH1 documentary Bling’d: Blood, Diamonds, and Hip Hop.

  [2] Arab writers and geographers of the thirteenth century make occasional mention of Ethiopia’s involvement in the diamond trade, though little more is known of the role(s) it played. Godehard Lenzen, The History of Diamond Production and the Diamond Trade (New York: Praeger, 1966), 82.

  [3] The indicator minerals are ilmenite, pyrope garnet, and chrome diopside.

  [4] Additional sources included Borneo (controlled by Japan); smuggled supplies from both Venezuela and Brazil; and diamonds confiscated from German citizens, European Jews, and other victims of the Second World War.

  [5] The term “Dutch Disease” describes a phenomenon in which a country’s natural resource(s) industry distorts other segments of the economy owing to large influxes of foreign currency. The term was coined following the Netherlands’ economic experience after the discovery of sizable natural gas deposits in the North Sea in the 1960s.

  [6] Patricia McKissack and Fredrick McKissack, The Royal Kingdoms of Ghana, Mali, and Songhay: Life in Medieval Africa (New York: Henry Holt, 1994), 25.

  [7] The emergence of these polities was a product of the influx of Shirazi Arabs from the Persian Gulf, local residents of Africa’s eastern coastal regions, and, to a lesser extent, Indians. Via the introduction of Islam and the creation of (Ki)Swahili, a Bantu language with Arabic elements that originally served as a lingua franca, a novel, hybrid culture that shared its name with the language arose in this region of Africa.

  [8] Kevin Shillington, History of Africa (New York: St. Martin’s, 1995), 100.

  [9] Susan Keech McIntosh, “A Reconsideration of Wangara/Palolus, Island of Gold,” Journal of African History 22, no. 2 (1981): 145.

  [10] McKissack and McKissack, Royal Kingdoms, 19.