42. Pringle, William Howard Taft, 948.
43. James Dill Startt, American Editorial Opinion of Woodrow Wilson and the Main Problems of Peacemaking in 1919, Ph. D. dissertation (University of Maryland, 1965), 273, exhaustively analyzes the newspaper and magazine support for Wilson to bolster this conclusion.
44. Clark, Deliver Us from Evil, 130–132. After Wilson was incapacitated by a cerebral thrombosis, Tumulty sent a veto of the Volstead Act to Capitol Hill, pretending it came from the president. With no further spoken or written word from Wilson to back it up, the veto was quickly overridden.
45. Thomas H. O’Connor, The Boston Irish (Boston, 1995), 192–193; and Klingaman, 1919, 498–501.
46. Cooper, Breaking the Heart of the World, 183–184.
47. PWW, 63:500–513.
48. Cooper, Breaking the Heart of the World, 187–189; and Bailey, The Great Betrayal, 131.
49. Irwin Hoover, My Forty-Two Years in the White House (New York, 1934), 100–101.
50. Ibid., 102.
51. Smith, When the Cheering Stopped, 96.
52. Levin, Edith and Woodrow, 339–340; and Ferrell, Ill-Advised, 13–14. Grayson’s medical credentials were not impressive. He had graduated from the College of William and Mary and obtained an M.D. from the University of the South in a one-year course.
53. Smith, When the Cheering Stopped, 99–100.
54. Wilson, My Memoir, 288–289.
55. Levin, Edith and Woodrow, 344–347.
56. Hoover, My Forty-Two Years in the White House, 103.
57. Levin, Edith and Woodrow, 333. See also Bailey,Woodrow Wilson and the Great Betrayal, 137.
58. Blum, Joe Tumulty and the Wilson Era, 215; and Klingaman, 1919, 577.
59. Blum, Joe Tumulty and the Wilson Era, 221–223.
60. Renshaw, The Wobblies, 209–212; and Dubofsky,We Shall Be All, 455.
61. Walter Lippmann, “Unrest,” New Republic, November 12, 1919, 1–2. The disillusioned journalist identified the source of this failure:“The government of the United States resides in the mind of Woodrow Wilson. There are no other centers of decision. Whatever thinking is done, he does. If he is away, the thinking apparatus is away.” He went on to castigate Wilson for neglecting to govern because the treaty of peace had not been ratified. Lippmann called this “a fantastic excuse.”
62. Klingaman, 1919, 496–498.
63. Ibid., 520–522; and Dennis Mack Smith, Mussolini (New York, 1982), 37.
64. Craig, Germany, 430; and Klingaman, 1919, 474.
65. Flood, Hitler: The Path to Power, 34–35.
66. Ibid., 20.
67. Ibid., 67–69.
68. Levin, Edith and Woodrow, 380.
69. Cooper, Breaking the Heart of the World, 252–257, theorizes that House never sent this document to the White House, but offers no reason for this rather unlikely decision. Walworth, Wilson and His Peacemakers, 542, prefers the wastebasket explanation.
70. Case and La Follette, Robert M. La Follette, 983.
71. Ibid., 979–981.
72. Garraty, Henry Cabot Lodge, 379.
Chapter 12: Illusions End
1. Startt, American Editorial Opinion, 254, 257.
2. Blum, Joe Tumulty and the Wilson Era, 231–232.
3. Seymour, Intimate Papers of Colonel House, 4:509–511. See also Walworth, Wilson and His Peacemakers, 545.
4. Walworth, Wilson and His Peacemakers, 545.
5. House Diary, December 22 and 27, 1919.
6. Cooper, Breaking the Heart of the World, 289–290; and Bailey, Woodrow Wilson and the Great Betrayal, 214–215.
7. Walworth, Wilson and His Peacemakers, 555–556. Clemenceau ran for president of France in 1921 and was soundly defeated.
8. Helen Fein, Imperial Crime and Punishment: The Massacre at Jallianwala Bagh (Honolulu, 1977), 129–144; and James, Raj, 478–480.
9. Roy Talbert, Jr., Negative Intelligence: The Army and the American Left, 1917–1941 (Jackson, Miss., 1991), 191–193.
10. Klingaman, 1919, 598.
11. Talbert, Negative Intelligence, 194–196.
12. Steel,Walter Lippmann, 167.
13. Talbert, Negative Intelligence, 196–199.
14. Blum, Joe Tumulty and the Wilson Era, 233–234.
15. PWW, 64:252–254.
16. Bailey,Woodrow Wilson and the Great Betrayal, 218–219.
17. Ibid., 245–246; and Cooper, Breaking the Heart of the World, 324–325.
18. Levin, Edith and Woodrow, 425.
19. John Maynard Keynes, The Economic Consequences of the Peace (New York, 1920), 39ff.
20. Bailey,Woodrow Wilson and the Great Betrayal, 252–253. A year later, in the Treaty of Rapallo, Italy and Yugoslavia agreed to make Fiume an independent free state. In 1924, Benito Mussolini, the new fascist dictator of Italy, annexed it.
21. Ibid., 225–226.
22. PWW, 65:8–13.
23. Levin, Edith and Woodrow, 435–436; and Bailey,Woodrow Wilson and the Great Betrayal, 262.
24. Duff, The Politics of Revenge, 221.
25. J. Leonard Bates, Senator Thomas J. Walsh of Montana (Urbana, Ill., 1999), 183–184.
26. Bailey,Woodrow Wilson and the Great Betrayal, 267.
27. Ibid., 280. Refusing to sign a bill, called a pocket veto, is the president’s final resort against legislation he disapproves. He uses it when he knows or fears a veto would be overridden.
28. Flood, Hitler: The Path to Power, 91–98.
29. Bailey,Woodrow Wilson and the Great Betrayal, 288.
30. Ibid., 291–292.
31. Smythe, Pershing: General of the Armies, 270.
32. Ibid., 271.
33. Vandiver, Black Jack, 1047–1051.
34. Smythe, Pershing: General of the Armies, 272.
35. O’Connor, Black Jack Pershing, 348–349.
36. Smythe, Pershing: General of the Armies, 272.
37. Cooper, Breaking the Heart of the World, 382–383.
38. Ibid., 383–384.
39. Garraty, Henry Cabot Lodge, 394.
40. Levin, Edith and Woodrow, 441.
41. Hoover, My Forty-Two Years in the White House, 107–108.
42. Heckscher,Woodrow Wilson, 628.
43. Bailey,Woodrow Wilson and the Great Betrayal, 309.
44. Blum, Joe Tumulty and the Wilson Era, 243–244.
45. Bailey, Woodrow Wilson and the Great Betrayal, 310; Cooper, Breaking the Heart of the World, 386; and Blum, Joe Tumulty and the Wilson Era, 243–244.
46. Heckscher,Woodrow Wilson, 633. A third term was not an entirely new idea, the product of the president’s damaged mind. On April 18, 1918, Colonel House asked Admiral Grayson if Wilson could stand another four years in the White House. Grayson said he might last another ten years if nothing “untoward” happened. On August 16, House “sounded him [Wilson] out on another term.” House said his “long experience” had enabled him to see evidence of a candidate deciding to run when he was “no more than half aware of it.” the colonel was apparently trying to make Wilson aware of this ultimate ambition. House Diary, April 18 and August 16, 1918.
47. Ward, A First-Class Temperament, 496–498.
48. Francis L. Paxon, American Democracy and the World War, vol. 3, Postwar Years, Normalcy, 1918–23 (New York, 1966), 157–159.
49. Blum, Joe Tumulty and the Wilson Era, 245–247.
50. Smith, When the Cheering Stopped, 163.
51. Heckscher,Woodrow Wilson, 635; and Smith, When the Cheering Stopped, 161–162.
52. Levin, Edith and Woodrow, 452.
53. Ward, A First-Class Temperament, 514.
54. Ibid., 514–515; and Smith, When the Cheering Stopped, 165.
55. Bailey,Woodrow Wilson and the Great Betrayal, 318–319.
56. Smith, When the Cheering Stopped, 167.
57. Duff, The Politics of Revenge, 258.
58. Ibid., 260–261.
59. Ibid., 262–264.
60. Ibid., 264.
61. Ibid., 265–2
66.
62. Ibid., 267.
63. Mark Sullivan, Our Times, The United States, 1900–1925, vol. 6, The Twenties (New York: 1923), 130; and Bailey,Woodrow Wilson and the Great Betrayal, 322.
64. Davis, FDR:The Beckoning of Destiny, 621; and Ward, A First-Class Temperament, 535.
65. Ibid., 620; and Frank Freidel, Franklin D. Roosevelt: The Ordeal (New York, 1954), 84.
66. Bailey,Woodrow Wilson and the Great Betrayal, 326–329; and Sullivan, Our Times, vol. 6, The Twenties, 121–122.
67. Sullivan, Our Times, vol. 6, The Twenties, 124–25.
68. Duff, Politics of Revenge, 278–279; and Blum, Joe Tumulty and the Wilson Era, 252.
69. Duff, The Politics of Revenge, 280.
70. Ward, A First-Class Temperament, 544; and Duff, The Politics of Revenge, 280.
71. Duff, The Politics of Revenge, 282.
72. Freidel, Franklin D. Roosevelt: The Ordeal, 89; and Blum, Joe Tumulty and the Wilson Era, 252.
73. Ibid., 89 n; and Bailey, Woodrow Wilson and the Great Betrayal, 323.
74. Ward, A First-Class Temperament, 534–535.
75. Ferrell,Woodrow Wilson and World War I, 228.
76. PWW, 66:277–280.
77. Ward, A First-Class Temperament, 547–548.
78. Ibid., 549–550, 554; and Duff, Politics of Revenge, 285.
79. Freidel, Franklin D. Roosevelt: The Ordeal, 71 n; and Ward, A First-Class Temperament, 553–554.
80. Morgan, FDR:A Biography, 231.
81. Bailey,Woodrow Wilson and the Great Betrayal, 344.
82. Duff, The Politics of Revenge, 286–287;Ward, A First-Class Temperament, 556; and Bailey, Woodrow Wilson and the Great Betrayal, 342. Later landslides, for Lyndon Johnson in 1964 and Richard Nixon in 1972, equaled Harding’s 61 percent, but their opponents received more than Cox’s pathetic 35 percent. Debs got 3 percent.
83. Thomas J. Fleming, “‘I Am the Law,’ a Case History of a Political Machine,” American Heritage 20, no. 4 (June 1969): 56–57.
84. Duff, The Politics of Revenge, 287, 301; and Ward, A First-Class Temperament, 556.
85. Bailey,Woodrow Wilson and the Great Betrayal, 344.
Chapter 13: A Covenant with Power
1. Ward, A First-Class Temperament, 557–558.
2. Garraty, Henry Cabot Lodge, 399–400; and Cooper, Breaking the Heart of the World, 395.
3. Craig, Germany, 436–437.
4. Ibid., 440–450.
5. Frank Trommler and Joseph McVeigh, eds., America and the Germans, vol. 2, The Relationship in the Twentieth Century (Philadelphia, 1989), 18–29. Financial data from Richard B. Morris, ed., Encyclopedia of American History (New York, 1953), 319–323.
6. Case and La Follette, Robert M. La Follette, 967.
7. David Fromkin,“What Is Wilsonianism?”World Policy Journal, spring 1994, 106.
8. Blum, Joe Tumulty and the Wilson Era, 171.
9. Garraty, Henry Cabot Lodge, 401.
10. Robert Lee Bullard, American Soldiers Also Fought (New York, 1936), vi.
11. Ibid., v–vi.
12. Craig, Germany, 282–283. The most complete statement of these late war aims is in Fritz Fischer, Germany’s Aims in the First World War (New York, 1967).
13. Ferguson, The Pity of War, 170–171.
14. Lloyd C. Gardner, A Covenant With Power: America and World Order from Wilson to Reagan (New York, 1984), 3–28.
15. Warren I. Cohen, The American Revisionists: The Lessons of Intervention in World War I (Chicago, 1967), 161.
16. Ibid., 174.
17. Thomas Fleming, The New Dealers’War: FDR and the War Within World War II (New York, 2001). The opening chapters of this book describe Roosevelt’s dilemma and his solution in considerable detail.
18. Knock, To End All Wars, 272.
19. Ibid., 273–274.
20. F.J. P. Veale,“The Wicked Kaiser Myth,” Social Justice Review, April 1950.
21. Arthur Schlesinger, Jr., A Thousand Days (Boston, 1965), 674–676.
22. Knock, To End All Wars, 269–270.
23. House Diary, April 3, 1921.
24. Smith, When the Cheering Stopped, 196; and Blum, Joe Tumulty and the Wilson Era, 263–264.
25. Lloyd George, Memoirs of the Peace Conference, 1:154–155.
26. Smythe, Pershing: General of the Armies, 259.
INDEX
Abolitionism
Accidents
Ackerman, Carl
Adams, Abigail and John
Adams, Samuel Hopkins
Addams, Jane
Advisory Commission of the Council of
National Defense
AEF. See World War I, American
Expeditionary Force
AFL. See American Federation of Labor
Africa
African Americans
black troops
veterans
Aircraft
failure of U.S. to produce
See also Air raids; United States, Army Air
Service
Air raids
Alabama (Confederate raider)
Albert, Heinrich
Albert I (Belgian King)
Alcoholic beverages. See also Prohibition
Allen, Henry
Allied Commission of Control
Almereyda, Miguel
Ambassador Morgenthau’s Story (Morgenthau)
American Alliance for Labor and Democracy
American Defense Society
American Federation of Labor (AFL)
American Federation of Women’s Clubs
American Legion
American Press Résumé
American Protective League (APL)
women volunteers for
American Soldiers Also Fought (Bullard)
American Truth Society
Amidon, Charles F.
Amos, James
Anarchist bombings
Anderson, Henry
Anderson, Maxwell
Anti-Saloon League (ASL)
Antiwar protesters.
See also Dissent
Anti-Yellow Dog League
APL. See American Protective League
Argentina
Armin, Sixt von
Armistice talks. See
also Germany, and armistice; Peace
conference/treaty;Wilson, Woodrow
and negotiated peace
Arms. See Weapons
Army League
Artillery
See also
Bombardments
Ashurst, Harry
ASL. See Anti-Saloon League
Asquith, Herbert
Associated Press
Atlantic Monthly
Atrocities
Bryce Report on
Auchincloss, Gordon
Australia
Austria/Austria-Hungary
declaration of war against Austria-
Hungary
request for peace
Vienna
Axson, Ellen
Aztec (merchantman)
Baker, Newton
Baker, Ray T.
Balance of power
Baldwin, Marian
Balfour, Arthur
Balfour Declaration
Balkan states
Baltic Sea
Baltic States
Baltimore
Baltimore American
Bannwart, Alexander
Baralong (Q-ship)
Barnes, Harry Elmer
Barnett, Ferdinand L. and Ida Wells-
Baruch, Bernard
Bauer, Gustav
Baumann, Sebastian
BBC. See British Broadcasting Company
Beard, Charles
Belgian Congo
Belgium
Louvain
Benedict XV (Pope)
Benson, William
Berger, Victor
Berliner Tageblatt
Bernhardi, Friederich von
Bernstorff, Johann von
/> Bethlehem Shipbuilding
Bethlehem Steel
Bethmann-Hollweg, Theobald von
Betnick (Count)
Bevan, Arthur Dean
Bew Letters
BI. See United States, Bureau of Investigation
Bielaski, A. Bruce
Big business
Bigelow, Herbert S.
Bill of Rights
Billy Sunday
Binding, Rudolf
Bipartisanship
Birth control
Birth of a Nation (film)
Bissolati, Leonida
Bliss, Tasker H.
Blockades
Allied Blockade Committee
See also Great Britain, blockade by
Bok, Edward
Bolo (Pasha), Paul-Marie
Bolsheviks
Bombardments
Bonar Law, Andrew
Bones, Helen Woodrow
Bonnet Rouge
Bonsal, Stephen
Borah, William
Boston
Boston Journal
Boston Symphony
BPC. See Bridgeport Projectile Company
Brandegee, Frank B.
Brandeis, Louis
Brannen, Carl
Brazil
Brest-Litovsk
conditions of treaty of
Bridgeport Projectile Company (BPC)
Bridges, G.T.M. “Tommy”
Briggs, Alfred M.
British Broadcasting Company (BBC)
Britten, Fred A.
Brockdorff-Rantzau, Ulrich von (Count)
Brooks, Louise Cromwell
Broun, Heywood
Brown, Preston
Browning, Edward
Bruchmuller, Georg
Brunet, Frederic
Bryan, William Jennings
and peace treaty
resignation of
Bryce, James. See also Atrocities
Bryce Report on
Bucharest
Bulgaria
Bull
Bullard, Robert Lee
Bullitt, William C.
Bundy, Omar
Burleson, Albert Sidney
Burnett, John Lawson
Butler, Nicholas Murray
Byrnes, James
Cabinet. See under Roosevelt, Franklin D.;
Wilson, Woodrow
Cables, undersea
Caillaux, Henriette
Caillaux, Joseph
Cameroons
Camp Funston (Kansas)
Camp Wheeler (Georgia)
Canada
Cannon, Joseph “Uncle Joe”
Carbolic acid
Carnegie, Andrew
Carranza, Venustiano
Carson, Edward
Casement, Sir Roger
Casualties. See also under World War I
The Illusion of Victory Page 67